第一篇：电力安全小词典4
全科医生小词典
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全科医生小词典
作者：
来源：《中国全科医学·学术版B》2013年第10期
以社区为导向的基层医疗(COPC)是指在基层医疗服务中将以个人为单位、治疗为目的的基层医疗与社区为单位、重视预防保健的社区医疗两者有机结合起来，即在基层医疗中，重视影响社区人群健康的相关因素。
第二篇：4安全急救小知识[精选]
安全急救小知识
一. 中暑
中暑应立即将病人移至阴凉通风处或空调室，给予清凉含盐饮料，可用清凉油、风油精涂擦太阳、合谷和风池等穴位。体温高者给予冷敷或酒精擦浴。
二.骨折
(1)骨折部位固定，避免骨折部位移位和损伤血管神经。
(2)伴有心跳停止者立即进行口对口人工呼吸和胸外心脏挤压。
(3)有大血管损伤，立即用绑带或止血带结扎止血。
三.烧伤
(1)消除烧伤的病因：不同的病因予以不同的措施。火焰烧伤的，要立即脱去着火的衣服，或就地慢慢打滚扑灭火焰，切勿奔跑、呼喊，以免加重烧伤或烟雾被吸入而引起呼吸道烧伤。强碱类烧伤用大量清水冲洗。强酸类烧伤用大量清水冲洗创面后，用5%碳酸氢钠溶液中和。
(2)保护创面：用消毒敷料包扎创面。
(3)镇静、止痛：可给予安定药片口服。
四.电击伤
(1)解脱电源：立即切断总电源是安全有效的方法。
(2)心跳停止者立即进行口对口人工呼吸和胸外心脏挤压。
(3)创面用碘酒、酒精消毒处理后，用消毒敷料包扎。
五.呼吸窒息
应针对不同病因进行急救。如痰液阻塞，要尽快吸痰;异物吸入可采取体位引流、拍击、用力压腹部的方法，清除异物，迅速使呼吸道通畅。
六、(1)小挫伤
问：什么叫小挫伤?小挫伤后应作如何处理?
答：皮肤表面受钝力撞击后，皮肤完整无伤口，皮下小血管破裂出血形成青紫或者小包叫做挫伤。范围小的又名为小挫伤。小挫伤应作如下处理：
1.用肥皂水、清水洗净伤处。
2.局部用冷水袋冷敷，达到局部止血目的。
3.受伤后24小时后可改用热敷，促进吸收。
4.发生关节附近的小挫伤宜请医生诊治。
(2)、小擦伤
问：什么叫小擦伤、小擦伤后应作如何处理?
答：皮面受钝力擦伤，伤处有渗出，无伤口，称这种伤为擦伤，易感染，处理要注意：
1.特别要注意清洁伤处：处理者要洗净自己的手，用棉球蘸肥皂水反复擦干净伤处及伤处周围后用消毒水或凉开水多次清洗后，再用酒精消毒伤处周围，使周围皮面上的细菌无法生长。
2.伤处处理好后包扎。
3.关节附近擦伤更应包扎，最好限制伤处活动3～4天。
(3)、锐器刺伤
问：锐器刺伤后应作如何处理?
答：一切尖锐的东西刺人皮肉，这种刺伤很复杂，因为伤口小，深度不定，如刺在胸、腹、腰、头面等要害部位，还可能出现内脏损伤、血管破裂、脏器刺破，其危险性很大，故对刺伤切勿轻心。
1.对于刺在要害部位或可疑要害部位较深的刺伤，不能随便拔掉刺入物，避免因拔出后引起大出血，应急送医院抢救。
2.铁钉刺伤，不能自己拔除就了事，应到医院根据不同情况注射破伤风预防针。
3.小且浅的刺伤可自己处理：用2%碘酒消毒刺伤周围，用酒精脱碘，盐水或干净白开水棉球擦拭伤口后包扎即可。
4.刺伤在会阴部、眼皮、口唇等部位，可用红汞消毒。
5.如有木刺、玻璃碎琐刺伤，消毒毕，用火烧过凉后的针挑出木刺或玻璃碎琐后包扎。
6.伤口不断出血，消毒后紧紧加压包扎即可。
七、溺水
问：对溺水病人应作如何急救?
答：当您发现溺水病人，应争分夺秒进行急救，其方法是：
1.尽快将溺水者救出水画。
2.迅速清除口腔、鼻腔内的水和污物，解开病人的紧身衣裤，胸罩或腰带，用包裹纱布的手指将舌头拉出口外，恢复和维持呼吸道通畅。
3.迅速倒出呼吸道及胃内积水。但切忌时间过长，而影响呼吸及心脏复苏。方法是：急救者取半跪位，将溺水者的腹部放在膝盖上，使其头部向下垂，并用手平压背部。或急救者抱起溺水者的腰部，使腰背向上，头部下垂，摆晃患者，促使水排出。
4.如心跳呼吸都已停止，则最好两位急救者配合进行人工呼吸和胸外心脏按压(每分钟72次)。如心脏还有规律的跳动，仅呼吸停止或呼吸次数明显减少，可进行口对口人工呼吸。
5.以最快的速度请医生来现场急救，在医生未来到前不可随便放松或中断急救。
6.有条件的地方，可在持续的人工呼吸和胸外心脏按压下，送附近医院继续抢救，切不可不经任何处理即送医院，这样往往因时间过久，失去抢救时机。
八、触电
问：如何抢救触电病人?
答：在工作或生活中接触电流或被雷电和高压电击中，可引起损伤，表现灼伤、昏迷、肌肉痉挛、呼吸心跳停止等。发现有人遭电击应立即采取以下抢救措施：
1.立即脱离电源，切断电源，如离电闸或开关很近，可立即关闭。亦可用竹杆、木棍等非导电体使患者脱离电源。
2.在触电者脱离电源时，要注意防止其摔伤。
3.未切断电源前，营救者切勿接触病人，以免同时被电击。
4.切断电源后应迅速清除病人口腔的积物，以保持呼吸道通畅。
5.病人如心跳及呼吸停止，争分夺秒进行胸外心脏按压和口对口人工呼吸。心肺复苏术必须持续进行，不可轻易放弃。
6.心脏已复苏，或在持续的胸外心脏按压及人工呼吸下，送医院继续抢救。
九、毒蛇咬伤
问：如何抢救被毒蛇咬伤患者?
答：据报道，在我国有毒蛇50来种，其中危害较大的有眼镜蛇、眼镜王蛇、银环蛇、金环蛇、海蛇、喹蛇、蝮蛇、五步蛇、竹叶青、龟壳花蛇等。毒蛇所分泌的毒大致
可分为神经毒、心脏毒、凝血素、抗凝血素、溶血素及酶类6类。人被毒蛇咬伤后，毒液可随淋巴循环进入体内，若直接进入血液循环，极易迅速死亡。发现被毒蛇咬伤的病人，应迅速进行以下处理：
1.被咬伤者要镇定，尽可能减少活动，就地进行处理。
2.立即用止血带或布带，绳子等代用品，在毒蛇咬伤的创口的近心脏一端约5厘米处进行绑扎，以减少毒素的吸收和扩散。
3.扎在肢体上的止血带或代用品每隔15—30分钟放松一次。以防止被扎肢体缺血坏死。
4.及时清洗处理被毒蛇咬伤的创口。创口周围皮肤用肥皂水洗涤干净，当时如有条件可在流水下冲洗。用吸乳器或用拔火罐的办法，吸出创口内毒液，然后用1∶5000的高锰酸钾溶液或3%的双氧水冲洗伤口，还可用火柴烧灼伤口，或放几颗高锰酸钾于伤口中，可破坏毒素。
5.尽早服用特效蛇药，如上海蛇药、南通蛇药、蛇伤解毒片、群生蛇药，广西一号蛇药等，根据条件任选一种，按说明服用。
6.经上述初步处理后，迅速送医院继续进行治疗。
十、蜜蜂螫伤
问：被蜜蜂螫伤后应作如何处理?
答：蜂毒主要含有蚁酸、神经毒和组织胺。人被螫伤后，主要是局部剧痛、灼热、红肿或水泡形成。被群蜂毒力较大的黄蜂螫伤后症状较重，可出现头晕、头痛、恶寒、发热、烦燥、痉挛及晕厥等。少数可出现喉头水肿、气喘、呕吐、腹痛、心率增快、血压下降、休克和昏迷。
有人被蜂螫伤后，可采取以下方法处理：
1.尽快在被螫局部找到蜂针，并拔除，减少毒素的吸收。
2.局部用3%氨水，5%碳酸氢钠溶液或肥皂水洗净。对黄蜂螫伤则不用上药而局部涂以醋酸或食醋。
3.可在伤口周围外涂擦南通蛇药或可任选中草药紫花地丁、半边莲、七叶一枝花、蒲公英30—60g捣拦外敷。
4.对重症病人或被蜂螫伤眼睛的病人，应尽快送医院治疗。
八、动物咬伤
问：被动物咬伤后应作如何处理?
答：被一切哺乳动物(尤其是狗、猫、狼等)咬伤都有可能患狂犬病，即狂犬病并非仅由“疯狗“引起。狂犬病的病死率达100%，故一旦被狗、猫等动物咬伤(即使其外观正常，无疯狂的表现)应立即到卫生防疫站报告和接受免疫处理：
1.咬伤后应立即进行伤口处理。先用20%肥皂水或0.1%新洁尔灭彻底冲洗伤口再用生理盐水冲洗，冲后用碘酒涂擦，伤口不可缝合也不能包扎。
2.预防接种狂犬疫苗，被咬伤的第一天就应开始注射，一般需注射5次。严重咬伤或咬伤部位在手或头面，应同时注射抗狂犬病血清和狂犬疫苗(不同部位)，并加大疫苗注射剂量，第
1、2次剂量加倍。
十一、服错药
万一服错了药，病人及家属不可忙乱，应及时采取措施，其原则是及早排出，解毒，对症治疗。
1.催吐：病人错服药后当即被发现，可及时催吐，简单有效的方法是用手指反复刺激舌根部，引起呕吐。
2.洗胃：在催吐的基础上，如病人清醒，可以大量服用茶水，然后刺激舌根部诱发呕吐，洗胃后，最好给病人服点骨炭末水(即猪骨烧成炭研末，水调成糊状)，牛奶或生鸡蛋清，以吸附药物，减少吸收和保护胃粘膜。
3.误吃有腐蚀性的药物的病人，忌用催吐或洗胃，可以灌服牛奶鸡蛋清、植物油等保护胃粘膜。
4.进行上述初步处理后，立即送医院，但切勿忘记将吃错药的瓶、药袋、药盒带上，以便医生抢救时查考。
5.如病人已有神志不清，应注意解开病人衣领、领带，清除口腔积物，保持呼吸道通畅。如病人已发生心跳、呼吸停止，应立即持续进行心脏胸外按压、人工呼吸，并及时送医院抢救。
十二、火烧伤急救
火场烧伤处理当务之急是尽快消除皮肤受热。
1、用清水或自来水充分冷却烧伤部位;
2、用消毒纱布或干净布等包裹伤面;
3、伤员发生休克时，可用针刺或使用止痛药止痛;对呼吸道烧伤者，注意疏通呼吸道，防止异物堵塞;
4、伤员口渴时可饮少量淡盐水;紧急处理后可使用抗生药物，预防感染。
十三、化学物品烧伤急救
当受到酸、碱、磷等化学物品烧伤时，最简单、最有效的处理办法是，用大量清洁冷水冲洗烧伤人员，一方面可冲洗掉化学物品，另一方面可使伤者局部毛细血管收缩，减少化学物品的吸收。
十四、电烧伤急救
触电后，电流出入处发生烧伤，局部肌肉痉挛，且多为Ⅲ度烧伤。
1、迅速关闭电源，使伤者脱离电源;
2、伤员转移至通风处，松开衣服。当伤者呼吸停止时，施行人工呼吸;心脏停止跳动时，施行胸外按压;并可注射可拉明等呼吸兴奋剂，促使自动恢复呼吸;
3、同时进行全身及胸部降温;
4、清除呼吸道分泌物;
5、对伤口用消毒纱布包裹，出血时用止血带、止血药等包扎处理。
十五、有毒气体急救
1、用湿毛巾等捂住口、鼻，躬身弯腰向与烟气相反方向的安全出口逃出;
2、中毒者抢救出来后，放在空气新鲜、流通的地方实施抢救;
3、伤员停止呼吸时，应立即进行人工呼吸，可能时供给氧气，并迅速送往医院。
第三篇：电力英语4篇文章
Page1 Production of Electrical Energy(电能生产)
1 English text From reference
Hydrogen can be recovered by fermentation of organic material rich in carbohydrates, but much of the organic matter remains in the form of acetate and butyrate. An alternative to methane production from this organic matter is the direct generation of electricity in a microbial fuel cell (MFC). Electricity generation using a single-chambered MFC was examined using acetate or butyrate. Power generated with acetate (800 mg/L) (506 mW/m2 or 12.7 mW/L) was up to 66% higher than that fed with butyrate (1000 mg/L) (305 mW/m2 or 7.6 mW/L), demonstrating that acetate is a preferred aqueous substrate for electricity generation in MFCs. Power output as a function of substrate concentration was well described by saturation kinetics, although maximum power densities varied with the circuit load. Maximum power densities and half-saturation constants were Pmax = 661 mW/m2 and Ks = 141 mg/L for acetate (218 Ω) and Pmax = 349 mW/m2 and Ks = 93 mg/L for butyrate (1000 Ω). Similar open circuit potentials were obtained in using acetate (798 mV) or butyrate (795 mV). Current densities measured for stable power output were higher for acetate (2.2 A/m2) than those measured in MFCs using butyrate (0.77 A/m2). Cyclic voltammograms suggested that the main mechanism of power production in these batch tests was by direct transfer of electrons to the electrode by bacteria growing on the electrode and not by bacteria-produced mediators. Coulombic efficiencies and overall energy recovery were 10?31 and 3?7% for acetate and 8?15 and 2?5% for butyrate, indicating substantial electron and energy losses to processes other than electricity generation. These results demonstrate that electricity generation is possible from soluble fermentation end products such as acetate and butyrate, but energy recoveries should be increased to improve the overall process performance.
Keywords：electricity generation， acetate，butyrate，energy
Page2
Electrical energy transmission(电能输送)
2 English text
From reference The economic theory of electricity transmission pricing is now well-known. The first-best price of electricity at each point on a network (node) equals the marginal cost of providing electricity at that node. The electricity must not only be generated, but it must also be delivered to that node, taking account of transmission constraints and electrical losses. If transmission constraints are binding, so that the amount of power flowing through a line is at the limit which safety allows, then cheap but distant generation may have to be replaced with more expensive local generation, in order to reduce power flows. In the constrained area, the optimal price of electricity rises to the marginal cost of the local generation, or to the level needed to ration demand to the amount of electricity available. Even if there are no constraints, some power will be lost in the transmission system (dissipated as heat), and prices should reflect the fact that it is more expensive to provide electricity at the far end of a heavily loaded line than close to a power station. Transmission Congestion Contracts (Hogan, 1992) could be used to hedge spatial price differentials, and to help coordinate investment. These principles are well-known, but few electricity systems have adopted them. New Zealand and a small number of US power pools have markets which are based upon nodal spot prices, but almost every other country in the world uses a simplified system of transmission pricing. Nodes may be grouped together into zones, and the price differentials between zones are calculated from simplified models. Other systems still see transmission as an “overhead” cost, and use simple “wheeling rates” to calculate payments if one company imports power from a second over the lines of a third. These payments are typically based upon the volume of the flow and the length of its contracted route (the MW-mile approach), and frequently ignore the fact that any transaction in an interconnected system will affect power flows on all the other networks in that system. A special issue of Utilities Policy (1997) discusses the pricing rules adopted in eight electricity systems, assessing them against economic and political criteria. One common theme is that these rules tend to produce lower price differentials than would be associated with optimal spot prices.
How important are the differences between the relatively simple rules adopted in practice, and the prices which an optimal system would produce? One of the main economic functions of a price system is to signal the opportunity cost of alternative courses of action. On the demand side, an agent should buy something if it is valued at more than its price, while a supplier should produce it if this can be done for less than its price. If buyers and suppliers face the same prices, their independent decisions will ensure that the value of output at the margin is just equal to its marginal cost, which is optimal. If prices are above marginal costs, then too little of a good will be consumed and produced, while too much will be produced if prices are below marginal costs.1 The wrong prices can also lead to inefficient “bypass” as agents have an incentive to leave the market, and arrange deals at prices closer to their costs.2
This paper takes a simplified model of a transmission system, calculates optimal prices and quantities, and compares the outcome with those that simpler rules would produce. The model has thirteen nodes, with demand at every node and generation at most of them. The amounts of generation and demand, and the links between nodes, are intended as a simplified version of the transmission system in England and Wales. The profits earned by generators, and consumer surplus (the total amount consumers would be willing to pay for their consumption, less the amount which they do pay) can be calculated at each node for each pricing rule. Our main comparator is total welfare, equal to the sum of consumer surplus and profits.
Keywords：electricity transmission;The economic theory; differences; Node
Page 3 Protective relays(继电器)
3 English text
From reference1
The function of protective relaying is to cause the prompt removal from service of any element of a power system when it suffers a short circuit, or when it starts to operate in any abnormal manner that might cause damage or otherwise interfere with the effective operation of the rest of the system. The relaying equipment is aided in this task by circuit breakers that are capable of disconnecting the faulty element when they are called upon to do so by the relaying equipment. Circuit breakers are generally located so that each generator, transformer, bus, transmission line, etc., can be completely disconnected from the rest of the system. These circuit breakers must have sufficient capacity so that they can carry momentarily the maximum short-circuit current that can flow through them, and then interrupt this current; they must also withstand closing in on such a short circuit and then interrupting it according to certain prescribed standards.3 Fusing is employed where protective relays and circuit breakers are not economically justifiable. Although the principal function of protective relaying is to mitigate the effects of short circuits, other abnormal operating conditions arise that also require the services of protective relaying. This is particularly true of generators and motors. A secondary function of protective relaying is to provide indication of the location and type of failure. Such data not only assist in expediting repair but also, by comparison with human observation and automatic oscillograph records, they provide means for analyzing the effectiveness of the fault-prevention and mitigation features including the protective relaying itself. Keywords：protective relaying;function;transformer;transmission line;Circuit breakers
From reference 2
Some relays have adjustable time delay, and others are "instantaneous" or "high speed." The term "instantaneous" means "having no intentional time delay" and is applied to relays that
operate in a minimum time of approximately 0.1 second. The term "high speed" connotes operation in less than approximately 0.1 second and usually in 0.05 second or less. The operating time of high-speed relays is usually expressed in cycles based on the power-system frequency; for example, "one cycle" would be /60 second in a 60-cycle 1 system. Originally, only the term "instantaneous" was used, but, as relay speed was increased, the term "high speed" was felt to be necessary in order to differentiate such relays from the earlier, slower types. This book will use the term "instantaneous" for general reference to either instantaneous or high-speed relays, reserving the term "high-speed" for use only when the terminology is significant. Occasionally, a supplementary auxiliary relay having fixed time delay may be used when a certain delay is required that is entirely independent of the magnitude of the actuating quantity in the protective relay. Time delay is obtained in induction-type relays by a "drag magnet," which is a permanent magnet arranged so that the relay rotor cuts the flux between the poles of the magnet, as shown in Fig. 4. This produces a retarding effect on motion of the rotor in either direction. In other relays, various mechanical devices have been used, including dash pots, bellows, and escapement mechanisms. The terminology for expressing the shape of the curve of operating time versus the actuating quantity has also been affected by developments throughout the years. Originally, only the terms "definite time" and "inverse time" were used. An inverse-time curve is one in which the operating time becomes less as the magnitude of the actuating quantity is increased, as shown in Fig. 5. The more pronounced the effect is, the more inverse is the curve said to be. Actually, all time curves are inverse to a greater or lesser degree. They are most inverse near the pickup value and become less inverse as the actuating quantity is increased. A definite-time curve would strictly be one in which the operating time was unaffected by the magnitude of the actuating quantity, but actually the terminology is applied to a curve that becomes substantially definite slightly above the pickup value of the relay, as shown in Fig. 5. As a consequence of trying to give names to curves of different degrees of inverseness, we now have "inverse," "very inverse," and "extremely inverse." Although the terminology may be somewhat confusing, each curve has its field of usefulness, and one skilled in the use of these relays has only to compare the shapes of the curves to know which is best for a given application. This book will use the term "inverse" for general reference to
any of the inverse curves, reserving the other terms for use only when the terminology is significant. Thus far, we have gained a rough picture of protective relays in general and have learned some of the language of the profession. References to complete standards pertaining to circuit elements and terminology are given in the bibliography at the end of this chapter.1 With this preparation, we shall now consider the fundamental relay types. Here we shall consider plunger-type and attracted-armature-type a-c or d-c relays that are actuated from either a single current or voltage source. Keywords：instantaneous;operating time;permanent maqnet; voltage source
Page 4
Motor(电动机)
4 English text
From reference1
We do get asked for some strange things sometimes: Vauxhall Vectra fans may recall the original launch TV advert which for a few seconds featured on-screen, a large multi-dialled clock, which was supposed to show time speeding forward to catch up with the leap into the future made by the new Vectra. Others might have suggested it was simply counting down the hours towards a cambelt failure.... The clock was a stage prop designed and built for the advert by a London model-making company. It now resides in a North London flat as a rather unusual coffee table. Unfortunately the expensive variable speed-regulated motors used to drive the three dials on the clock face were reclaimed by the production company and so despite the complex gearing system installed, it did not run. A rather odd telephone call from the owner revealed that he was looking for some way to get it going again at minimum cost. He had seen an advert in a hobby magazine for C167 starter kits and wondered if there were some examples around of how to control the speed of a DC motor. Being helpful types and major fans of the Vectra (no chance), we came up with a solution based on a recycled Phytec miniMODULE167, a 12v DC motor, a fan, an infra-red LED, a photodiode and some simple C code. The objective was to make the clock run in "real time", accurate enough to keep good time for the duration of the average dinner party but be able to run at high speed (as in the advert) on demand to impress the guests, just after the traditional serving of peppermint Rennies. The result was a simple Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controller for a 12v permanent magnet DC motor. PID is very widely used in industrial control systems and something we get asked for examples of very frequently. Strangely, a trawl of the Web revealed no C-coded examples of any sort so we decided to do it from scratch. To make the clock run at a constant speed, here 600rpm, some form of accurate speed regulator mechanism was required. This would ensure that over time, the average motor speed would be constant. The nature of the clock mechanism was that the load on the motor varies. For example, as the various hands move, small load peaks occur which tend to disturb the running
speed. The drag and motor efficiency were also subject to change, particularly as a result of temperature. A more appropriate motor drive mechanism to have used in this type of application would have been a stepper motor but most requests we get are for the control of conventional motors plus a reasonable DC motor just happened to be in the parts bin at the time.... Keywords：Speed regulating motor;Photodiode;fan;PID;
From reference 2
The closed-loop controller is a very common means of keeping motor speed at the required "setpoint" under varying load conditions. It is also able to keep the speed at the setpoint value where for example, the setpoint is ramping up or down at a defined rate. The essential addition to the previous system is a means for the current speed to be measured. In the example, a three bladed vane was attached to the motor shaft. An infra-red LED was obscured from the view of a photodiode by the vane blades so that a series of pulses with a frequency proportional to motor speed is now available. In this "closed loop" speed controller, a signal proportional to the motor speed is fed back into the input where it is subtracted from the setpoint to produce an error signal. This error signal is then used to work out what the magnitude of controller output should be to make the motor run at the required setpoint speed. For example, if the error speed is positive, the motor is running too fast so that the controller output should be reduced and vice-versa. The clever part is how the output drive is worked out.... At first sight it might be imagined that something simple like "if the error speed is negative, multiply it by some scale factor (usually known as "gain") and set the output drive to this level", i.e. the voltage applied to the motor is proportional to the error speed. In practice, this approach is only partially successful for the following reason: if the motor is at the setpoint speed under no load there is no error speed so the motor free runs. If a load is applied, the motor slows down so that a positive error speed is produced. The output increases by a proportional amount to try and restore the speed. However, as the motor speed recovers, the
error reduces and so therefore does the drive level. The result is that the motor speed will stabilise at some speed below the setpoint at which the load is balanced by the error speed x the gain. If the gain is very high so that even the smallest change in motor speed causes a significant change in drive level, the motor speed may oscillate or "hunt" slightly . This basic strategy is known as "proportional control" and on its own has only limited use as it can never force the motor to run exactly at the setpoint speed. The next improvement is to introduce a correction to the output which will keep adding or subtracting a small amount to the output until the motor reaches the setpoint, at which point no further changes are made. In fact a similar effect can be had by keeping a running total of the error speed speeds observed for instance, every 25ms and multiplying this by another gain before adding the result the proportional correction found above. This new term is based on what is effectively the integral of the error speed. Thus far we have a scheme where there are two mechanisms trying to correct the motor speed which constitutes a PI (proportional-integral) controller. The proportional term is a fast-acting correction which will make a change in the output as quickly as the error arises. The integral takes a finite time to act but has the ability to remove all the steady-state speed error. A further refinement uses the rate of change of error speed to apply an additional correction to the output drive. This means that a rapid motor deceleration would be counteracted by an increase in drive level for as long as the fall in speed continues. This final component is the "derivative" term and it is a useful means of increasing the short-term stability of the motor speed. A controller incorporating all three strategies is the well-known Proportional-Integral-Derivative, or "PID" controller. For best performance, the proportional and integral gains need careful tuning. For example, too much integral gain and the control will tend to over-correct for any speed error resulting in oscillation about the setpoint speed. Several well-known mathematical techniques are available to calculate optimal gain values, given knowledge of the combined characteristics of the motor and load, i.e. the "transfer function". However, some simple rules of thumb and a little experimentation can yield satisfactory results in practical applications. 9
第四篇：电力机车典型故障案例-4
1、电力机车SS3机车II端(成端)司机室学习司机侧的侧窗玻璃坏。通知技术科，技术科安排成都检修人员在江油将I端侧窗玻璃取下装至II端，I端侧窗用纸板封闭
2、电力机车SS4(1)机车B节空转灯长亮，已将电子柜倒B组运行;
(2)机车监控显示器显示制动缸压力为20kpa，运行中语音提示“注意弛缓”，告知检查机车缓解情况，司机说：缓解后制动缸压力为0，闸瓦与车轮有间隙，但是监控显示器仍然显示制动缸压力为20kpa。告知：对监控装置进行关机操作，看是否能恢复正常，司机说：关机操作后该现象仍然存在。维持运行，
机车入库后更换第3轴速度传感器后，故障消除。电务值班干部说上车试验一切正常，制动缸压力估计为误报，且与监控装置没有关系。
3、电力机车HXD3C机班两张IC卡输入监控时，监控IC卡指示灯亮，但按压设定键输入，均显示IC卡异常无法输入。司机换端输入、监控关机后再输入均无效。通知驻点指导司机重新在安康派班室写一张卡带到车站交司机后，输入机车监控装置正常。
4、电力机车HXD3C机车走行部制动指示器上空气制动显示牌错误显示，在机车缓解后，显示牌仍显示制动“红牌”。司机检查制动器夹钳有间隙，有活动量，制动盘温度正常。 告知维持运行，运行途中加强检查。18:04分，追踪询问司机，司机说：机车运行正常，显示牌错误显示制动“红牌”的故障现象依然存在。
5、电力 SS4机车B节车大闸运转位时排风不止，制动区时正常，学习司机去检查确定故障点为，B节车中继阀的总风遮断阀处漏风严重，问如何处理。
指导意见：报告行调，请求处理时间，将A节车的中继阀的总风遮断阀胶垫与B节车的故障胶垫互换，作业安全方面注意关闭157#、114#塞门。
去电话询问处理情况。司机说行调不同意，走不了就报机破。立即给出处理意见，用改刀将胶垫捅回去或找铁丝捆扎，维持运行。
去电话询问处理结果，司机说，按照上述方法漏风基本上堵住了，已经报告行调。
第五篇：电力燃料公司运行分析及建议4
淮矿电力燃料公司工作汇报材料
在集团公司领导的亲自关心下，电力燃料公司从今年3月份正式更名，增加了人员和机构。我们的工作在去年探索的基础上全面铺开，1-8月份累计完成西部资源销量445万吨，(其中供省内电煤245.1万吨;10家参股电厂204.1万吨)，产值28.23亿元，毛利8664万元，利润7524万元。
随着公司的迅速发展，业务量的扩大，目前操作中存在的问题和困难已经严重制约公司的发展，如果不解决这些困难和问题，将会影响电力燃料公司2012年1000万吨，2015年1500万吨目标的实现。下面将公司目前存在的主要困难和建议汇报如下：
一、 人员严重不足
集团公司给电力燃料公司编制53人，11个科级机构，其中：机关科室5个，驻外办事处6个。是集团公司在去年260万吨基础上配备的，今年预计完成600万吨以上，机关、驻外人员长时间超负荷工作，职工安全和精细化管理都无法保证。
(一)淮矿电力燃料公司机构情况
1、机关科室
现有业务一科、业务二科、综合业务科(业务三科)、数质
第 1 页 量管理科及财务科，随着业务量的全面铺开，现有科室及人员远远不能满足发展需要，而日常调度指挥、价格管理等科室的缺失已成为制约公司发展的瓶颈。
2、驻外办事处
现有6个驻外办事处(其中连云港办事处属市场营销部编制)。西部、太原、西安3个办事处负责资源采购，现有业务人员12人。西安办事处仅有3人，每天除奔波在陕煤化总部及下属矿区之间，从上报计划到装车发运每个环节都要现场盯，人员疲惫不堪。
秦皇岛、连云港、泰州3个驻港口办事处，发运监管人员14人，发运遍布沿海、沿江十五个公共码头，情况复杂，一条2万吨海轮单次不间断作业26-48小时，为了保证人员安全，数质量监管到位，每次作业需2-3名工作人员。以秦皇岛办事处为例，现有管理人员6人，发运港口5个，月均发运2万吨海轮15条以上，最远相距300公里，由于人员少，发运量大，距离远，交通工具少，常出现1人监管一个港口的情况，人员安全，数质量监管都无法保证。
3、市场营销部配合部门
随着电力燃料公司的发展，市场营销部原有科室业务量相应大幅增加，机构及人员缺编缺员。
(二)与国内较大煤炭物流企业比较
通过了解，目前国内年交易量1000万吨左右现代煤炭物流
第 2 页 企业人员均在300人以上。以大连泰德为例，2011年预计完成1200万吨销售量，按照现代企业架构配置，现设有47个业务部门，员工319人。
总部设有战略管理部、品牌管理部、制度与流程、运营管理中心、供应链管理部等18个机关业务部门，114人;
港口8个储配中心及办事处，80人，仅大连、锦州两个储配基地就有57名管理人员。
驻外采购部7个，30人，内蒙区域设有鄂尔多斯、锡林浩特、海拉尔等4个采购部门。
驻外市场销售部14个，83人，遍布华东、华中、华南各区域。
(三)建议
1、为了适应2012年1000万吨的规模量，今年年底到明年年初急需增加67人，人数达到120人。其中：
① 增设5个科级单位，其中4个科室，1个驻外办事处：运输科、调度中心、价格管理科、纪检监察科、曹妃甸办事处，需27人;
② 在原编制基础上需要增加人员编制40人;
2、现有驻外销售处实现双重职能转变，同时挂名电力燃料公司驻外分公司。
3、从2013年到2015年，逐步增加人员，总体人员达到200人左右，实现现代化组织架构。
第 3 页
二、办公场所紧缺
(一)办公空间不足
淮矿电力燃料公司机关共有25名工作人员，使用8间办公室，约160平方米，除3位副总设有独立的办公室外，其他办公空间十分拥挤;三个业务科室共50平米，12名工作人员办公，日常业务工作都无法正常开展。
(二)缺少现代化办公条件
目前的办公场所与淮矿电力燃料公司当前的规模和未来发展规划不配套，无法满足现代化、信息化办公要求，需要增加办公室，配备专用的会议室、接待室、调度大厅等办公场所。
(三)建议
为实现淮矿电力燃料公司的十二五规划及目标，早日将淮矿电力燃料公司建设成为国内一流的较大型煤炭物流企业。淮矿电力燃料公司需要集团公司增加1000平米的办公场所，满足未来80-100名机关工作人员的办公需要，组建现代化办公的架构，整体设计规划，合理布局，形成一个分工明确、权责清晰，多部门联动高效的现代化企业。
三、煤企采购资源工作情况
电力燃料公司成立以来，一直致力于与产煤大省、产煤企业合作，从源头拿煤，争取资源的稳定和优惠的价格。但煤炭企业视我们为同行竞争者，不愿直接将资源卖给我们，设置重重障碍。
目前，从煤企采购资源有两种模式，一是神华置换资源，
第 4 页 二是采购煤企的市场资源。
(一)神华置换资源量不足
通过资源置换，把本土煤通过市场化运作，实现了集团公司效益最大化，也是电力燃料公司利润的主要来源。2011年置换资源合同量60万吨，占电力燃料公司全年采购资源量不到10%。
(二)西部资源车运直达发运困难
晋、陕、蒙地区资源丰富，但受制于运力，发运困难，加之不规范操作，代理、点装、小款层出不穷，五大电重点运力计划也要经过代理才能发运。作为国有企业，我们永远不能用不规范的手段来对付不规范的市场。
煤企发运先重点计划，后合资公司，最后才考虑交易计划的发运。以陕煤化为例，2010年签订120万吨交易合同全年仅发运3.7万吨，2011年在双方高层互访的基础上，签订战略合作协议及100万吨购销合同，由于没有拿到重点运力，每月25日后才安排当月铁路计划，而且很难批下来，目前仅发运2个列，都是通过代理运作，直接操作基本不可能。
经了解，陕煤化与江苏省燃料公司于今年初合资成立的陕煤化江苏公司，发运量就相当稳定。
(三)建议
1、扩大与神华资源置换量。
2010年签订合同量18万吨，实发13.64万吨;2011年签
第 5 页 订合同60万吨，截止8月底共发运46.52万吨，预计全年可按合同量兑现。根据双方近期衔接情况，建议2012年置换资源量按200万吨安排。
2、与其他煤企进行资本合作。建议与陕煤化等煤企组建合资公司，进行实质性合作，在双方共赢的基础上，调动对方积极性，从而满足拿资源的需要。
四、资本金不足
(一)现状
目前淮矿电力燃料公司资本金3亿元，无法满足正常经营需要。从上游供应商产煤企业采购资源，要求我们必须全额预付煤款;下游用户电厂，由于国家银根紧缩，电厂融资困难，拖欠煤款，致使我们回收煤款困难;港口库存占用资金。
年初，集团公司下达500万吨任务，定位资本金3个亿，今年预计完成600万吨以上，明年将达到1000万吨，3个亿资本金远远不足。
(二)建议
请集团公司现阶段将淮矿电力燃料公司的资本金规模再增加1-2亿元，以适应淮矿电力燃料公司目前的规模增长速度，随着未来规模的进一步做大，淮矿电力燃料公司的资本金需求将逐步提高。
附件一：市场营销部(电力燃料公司)需增加的编制及设备情况说明
第 6 页