胡壮麟语言学教程名词

胡壮麟语言学教程名词（精选2篇）

篇1：胡壮麟语言学教程名词

胡壮麟《语言学教程》术语表 第一章

phonology音系学 grammar语法学 morphology形态学 syntax句法学 lexicology词汇学

general linguistics普通语言学 theoretical linguistics理论语言学 historical linguistics历史语言学 descriptive linguistics描写语言学 empirical linguistics经验语言学 dialectology方言学 anthropology人类学 stylistics文体学 signifier能指 signified所指 morphs形素

morphotactics语素结构学/形态配列学

syntactic categories句法范畴 syntactic classes句法类别序列 sub-structure低层结构 super-structure上层结构 open syllable开音节 closed syllable闭音节 checked syllable成阻音节 rank 等级 level层次

ding-dong theory/nativistic theory本能论

sing-song theory唱歌说 yo-he-ho theory劳动喊声说 pooh-pooh theory感叹说 ta-ta theory模仿说

animal cry theory/bow-wow theory模声说

Prague school布拉格学派 Bilateral opposition双边对立 Mutilateral opposition多边对立 Proportional opposition部分对立 Isolated opposition孤立对立 Private opposition表缺对立 Graded opposition渐次对立 Equipollent opposition均等对立 Neutralizable opposition可中立对立 Constant opposition恒定对立 Systemic-functional grammar系统功能语法

Meaning potential意义潜势 Conversational implicature会话含义 Deictics指示词 Presupposition预设 Speech acts言语行为 Discourse analysis话语分析 Contetualism语境论 Phatic communion寒暄交谈 Metalanguage原语言 Applied linguistics应用语言学 Nominalism唯名学派 Psychosomatics身学

第二章

trachea/windpipe气管 tip舌尖 blade舌叶/舌面 front舌前部 center舌中部 top舌顶 back舌后部 dorsum舌背 root舌跟 pharynx喉/咽腔 laryngeals喉音 laryngealization喉化音 vocal cords声带 vocal tract声腔 initiator启动部分

pulmonic airstream mechanism肺气流机制

glottalic airstream mechanism喉气流机制

velaric airstream mechanism腭气流机制

Adam’s apple喉结 Voiceless sound清音 Voiceless consonant请辅音 Voiced sound浊音 Voiced consonant浊辅音 Glottal stop喉塞音 Breath state呼吸状态 Voice state带音状态 Whisper state耳语状态 Closed state封闭状态 Alveolar ride齿龈隆骨 Dorsum舌背 Ejective呼气音 Glottalised stop喉塞音 Impossive内爆破音 Click/ingressive吸气音

Segmental phonology音段音系学 Segmental phonemes音段音位 Suprasegmental超音段 Non-segmental非音段 Plurisegmental复音段 Synthetic language综合型语言 Diacritic mark附加符号 Broad transcription宽式标音 Narrow transcription窄式标音 Orthoepy正音法 Orthography正字法 Etymology词源

Active articulator积极发音器官 Movable speech organ能动发音器官 Passive articulator消极发音器官 Immovable speech organ不能动发音器官 Lateral边音

Approximant [j,w]无摩擦延续音 Resonant共鸣音

Central approximant中央无摩擦延续音

Lateral approximant边无摩擦延续音

Unilateral consonant单边辅音 Bilateral consonant双边辅音 Non-lateral非边音

Trill [r]颤音 trilled consonant颤辅音rolled consonant滚辅音 Labal-velar唇化软腭音 Interdental齿间音 Post-dental后齿音 Apico-alveolar舌尖齿龈音 Dorso-alveolar舌背齿龈音 Palato-alveolar后齿龈音 Palato-alveolar腭齿龈音 Dorso-palatal舌背腭音 Pre-palatal前腭音 Post-palatal后腭音 Velarization软腭音化 Voicing浊音化 Devoicing清音化 Pure vowel纯元音 Diphthong二合元音 Triphthong三合元音 Diphthongization二合元音化 Monophthongization单元音化 Centring diphthong央二合元音 Closing diphthong闭二合元音 Narrow diphthong窄二合元音 Wide diphthong宽二合元音 Phonetic similarity语音相似性 Free variant自由变体 Free variation自由变异

Contiguous assimilation临近同化 Juxtapostional assimilation邻接同化 Regressive assimilation逆同化 Anticipatory assimilation先行同化 Progressive assimilation顺同化 Reciprocal assimilation互相同化 Coalescent assimilation融合同化 Partial assimilation部分同化 Epenthesis插音 Primary stress主重音 Secondary stress次重音 Weak stress弱重音 Stress group重音群 Sentence stress句子重音 Contrastive stress对比重音 Lexical stress词汇重音 Word stress词重音 Lexical tone词汇声调 Nuclear tone核心声调 Tonetics声调学

Intonation contour语调升降曲线 Tone units声调单位 Intonology语调学

Multilevel phonology多层次音系学 Monosyllabic word多音节词 Polysyllabic word单音节次 Maximal onset principle最大节首辅音原则

第三章 词汇

liaison连音

contracted form缩写形式 frequency count词频统计 a unit of vocabulary词汇单位 a lexical item词条 a lexeme词位 hierarchy层次性 lexicogrammar词汇语法 morpheme语素

nonomorphemic words单语素词 polymorphemic words多语素词 relative uninterruptibility相对连续性 a minimum free form最小自由形式 the maximum free form最大自由形式 variable words 可变词 invariable words不变词 paradigm聚合体

grammatical words(function words)语法词/功能词

lexical words(content words)词汇词/实义词

closed-class words封闭类词 opened-class words开放类词 word class词类 particles小品词 pro-form代词形式 pro-adjective(so)代形容词 pro-verb(do/did)代副词 pro-adverb(so)代动词

pro-locative(there)代处所词/代方位词 determiners限定词 predeterminers前置限定词 central determiners中置限定词 post determiners后置限定词 ordinal number序数词 cardinal number基数词 morpheme词素 morphology形态学 free morpheme自由词素 bound morpheme黏着词素 root词根 affix词缀 stem词干

root morpheme词根语素 prefix前缀 infix中缀 suffix后缀

bound root morpheme黏着词根词素 inflectional affix屈折词缀 derivational affix派生词缀 inflectional morphemes屈折语素 derivational morphemes派生语素 word-formation构词 compound复合词

endocentric compound向心复合词 exocentric compound离心复合词 nominal endocentric compound名词性向心复合词

adjective endocentric compound形容词性向心复合词

verbal compound动词性复合词

synthetic compound综合性复合词 derivation派生词 morpheme语素 phoneme音位

morphonology形态语音学 morphophomemics形态音位学 morphemic structure语素结构 phonological structure音素结构 monosyllabic单音节 polysyllabic多音节

phonological conditioned音位的限制 morphological conditioned形态的限制

coinage/invention新创词语 blending混成法 abbreviation缩写法 acronym首字母缩写法

back-formation逆序造次/逆构词法 analogical creation类比构词法 borrowing借词法 loanword借词 loanblend混合借词 loanshift转移借词 loan translation翻译借词 loss脱落 addition添加 metathesis换位 assimilation同化

contact assimilation接触性同化 contiguous assimilation临近性同化 theory of least effort省力理论 non-contiguous assimilation非临近性同化

distant assimilation远距离同化 morpho-syntactic change形态-句法变化

morphological change形态变化 syntactical change句法变化 finite element有定成分 semantic change语义变化 multisemous多种意义 broadening词义扩大 narrowing词义缩小 meaning shift词义转移 class shift词性变换 folk etymology俗词源

orthographic change拼写的变化 conversion变换/变码 domain范围/领域 meaning shift意义转移

split infinitives分裂不定式(She was told to regularly classes)calque仿造词语 clipping截断法 metanalysis再分化 finiteness定式

proximate(this)近指代词 obviative(that)远指代词

non-productivity/unproductive非多产性

semiotics符号学

paradigmatic relations聚合关系 associative relations联想关系 syntagmatic relations组合关系 sequential relations序列关系 logogram语标 register语域

passive vocabulary消极词汇 lexis/vocabulary词汇表

第四章 句法 number数 gender性 case格 nominative主格 vocative呼格 accusative兵格 genitive属格 dative与格 ablative离格 tense 时 aspect体 perfective完成体 imperfective未完成体

concord/agreement一致关系/协同关系

government支配关系 the governor支配者 the governed被支配者 signified能指 signifier所指

syntagmatic relationship组合关系 paradigmatic relationship聚合关系 associative relationship联想关系 animate noun有生名词 the two axes两根坐标坐标轴 immediate constituent analysis(IC analysis for short)直接成分分析法 linear structure线性结构 hierarchical structure层级结构 construction结构体 constituent成分 substituability替换性

labeled tree diagram标签树形图 endocentric/headed construction向心结构/中心结构

exocentric construction离心结构 subordinate construction主从结构 coordinate construction并列结构 recapitulation再现 the declarative陈述句 the interrogative疑问句 dative movement与格移位 morph-phonemic rule形态音位规则 constituent morphemes成分规则 affix hopping词缀越位 nominalization名物化 object-deletion宾语删除 subject-deletion主语删除 categories语类 lexicon词库

temporal subject表时间的主语

syntactic limitation句法限制 standard theory标准理论 trace theory语迹理论 the same index带同标志 government管辖 binding约束

a rule system规则系统 a principle system原则系统 constituent command(C-command for short)成分统制 plain English普通英语 anaphor照应语 pronominal指代语

r-expression(referential-expression)指称语

INFL(inflection)形态变化 reciprocals(each other)相互代词 accessible subject可及主语 local domain局部语域 binding domain约束语域 logophoricity主人公视角 CS(computational system)计算系统 Merger合并 move移动 theme主位 rheme述位

empty subject空主语 objective order客观顺序 subjective order主观顺序

actual sentence division实义句子切分法

functional sentence perspective 功能句子观

communicative dynamism(CD)交际动力

bipartition二分法

tripartite classification三分法 representative function表达功能 expressive function表情功能 appellative/vocative function称呼功能 conative function意欲功能 poetic function诗学功能 ideational function概念功能 interpersonal function人际功能 textual function语篇功能 transitivity及物性 actor动作者

mood system语气系统

the finite verbal operator限定部分 residue剩余部分 indicative直陈语气 imperative祈使语气

mental-process(a process of sensing)心理过程（感觉过程）

relational process(a process of being)关系过程（属性过程）

verbal process(a process of saying)言语过程（讲话过程）existential process生存过程

第四章 句法

number数 gender性 case格

nominative主格 vocative呼格 accusative兵格 genitive属格 dative与格 ablative离格 tense 时 aspect体 perfective完成体 imperfective未完成体

concord/agreement一致关系/协同关系

government支配关系 the governor支配者 the governed被支配者 signified能指 signifier所指

syntagmatic relationship组合关系 paradigmatic relationship聚合关系 associative relationship联想关系 animate noun有生名词 the two axes两根坐标坐标轴 immediate constituent analysis(IC analysis for short)直接成分分析法 linear structure线性结构 hierarchical structure层级结构 construction结构体 constituent成分 substituability替换性

labeled tree diagram标签树形图 endocentric/headed construction向心结构/中心结构

exocentric construction离心结构 subordinate construction主从结构 coordinate construction并列结构 recapitulation再现 the declarative陈述句 the interrogative疑问句 dative movement与格移位 morph-phonemic rule形态音位规则 constituent morphemes成分规则 affix hopping词缀越位 nominalization名物化 object-deletion宾语删除 subject-deletion主语删除 categories语类 lexicon词库

temporal subject表时间的主语 syntactic limitation句法限制 standard theory标准理论 trace theory语迹理论 the same index带同标志 government管辖 binding约束

a rule system规则系统 a principle system原则系统

constituent command(C-command for short)成分统制 plain English普通英语 anaphor照应语 pronominal指代语

r-expression(referential-expression)指称语

INFL(inflection)形态变化 reciprocals(each other)相互代词 accessible subject可及主语 local domain局部语域 binding domain约束语域 logophoricity主人公视角 CS(computational system)计算系统=derivational procedure推导系统 Merger合并 move移动 theme主位 rheme述位

empty subject空主语 objective order客观顺序 subjective order主观顺序

actual sentence division实义句子切分法

functional sentence perspective 功能句子观

communicative dynamism(CD)交际动力

bipartition二分法

tripartite classification三分法 representative function表达功能 expressive function表情功能 appellative/vocative function称呼功能 conative function意欲功能 poetic function诗学功能 ideational function概念功能 interpersonal function人际功能 textual function语篇功能 transitivity及物性 actor动作者

mood system语气系统

the finite verbal operator限定部分 residue剩余部分 indicative直陈语气 imperative祈使语气

mental-process(a process of sensing)心理过程（感觉过程）

relational process(a process of being)关系过程（属性过程）

verbal process(a process of saying)言语过程（讲话过程）existential process生存过程

empiricism经验主义（洛克，白板说）rationalism 理性主义（笛卡尔）mentalism心灵主义 new empiricism新经验主义(Bloomfield)

priori先天综合判断（康德Kant）Cartesian linguistics笛卡尔语言学派 Syntactic structure(SS)早期转换句法时期

Standard theory(ST)标准理论时期 Extended Standard theory(EST)扩展的标准理论

Revised Standard theory(REST)扩展的休正标准理论

The theory of government and binding(GB theory)管辖和约束理论时期（管约论）

Minimalist program(MP)最简方案时期

Structural description结构描写式 Performance system应用系统 Modular theory模块理论 Spell-out拼写

Language faculty语言机制/官能 Mental organ心智器官

Knowledge of language 语言知识 Meaning potential 意义潜势 Context culture 文化语境 Field语场 Tenor语旨 Mode语式 pivot words轴心词 mental construct心理构念

theoretical cognitive psychology理论认知心理学

psychological faculty心理官能 autosyn/autogram/autoknow语法自主(arbitrariness任意性,systemacity系统性, self-containedness自足性)typological functionalism类型学功能主义

extreme functionalism极端的功能主义

external functionalism外部功能主义 integrative functionalism一体化功能注主义

exceptional case marking例外格标记 specifier标定成分

fall-category maximal projection全语类的最大投射

two-segment category两节语类 complement domain补足语区域 minimal domain最小区域 internal domain内部区域 checking domain检验区域 sisterhood姐妹关系

minimizing chain link最小语链联结 representational system表达系统 strict cyclic principle严格的层级条件 structure-preserving principle结构保存原则

C-commanding condition成分统领条件

articulatory-perceptual system发音-听音系统

conceptual-intentional system概念-意旨系统

interface conditions中介条件 full-interpretation完全解释原则

procrastination逻辑形式操作优先原则

greed句法操作自利原则

the shortest linkage principle最短联接原则

the shortest movement principle最短移位原则 primary

complement/modifier(referential NP)一级补语位/修饰语位(定指名词短语)

secondary complement(non-referential NP)二级补语位(非定指名词短语)empty category principle空范畴原则 aspect checking特征验证 aspect feature基本体貌特征 ASPP is functional projection.ASPP 是功能投射.crossing branch交叉分支

across the board extraction抽取跨界移动

principles-and-parameters framework原则与参数语法

head parameter中心语参数 logical form(LF)逻辑形式 phonetic form(PF)语音形式 spell-out拼读

phonological component音韵部分 overt component显性部分 covert component隐性部分 core computation核心运算

asymmetric c-command不对称成分统制

linear correspondence axiom线形对应定理

adjunction加接 determiner限定词 concatenate联结 linearization线性化

functional parameterization hypothesis功能参数设定假设 right-branching右向分支 X’(V,N,A,P)词项

X’’=XP=Xmax是X的二阶投射结构 Y’’=指示语specifier Z’’=补述语complement IP=屈折短语inflection phrase XP=general phrase structure CHL人类语言的运算系统=computational system for human language

LCA线性对应定理=linear correspondence axiom Xmin=X0=最小投射

篇2：胡壮麟语言学教程名词

1.design feature:are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2.function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,etc.Language functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function,interpersonal function,performative function,emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.3.etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4.emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.5.synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6.diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7.prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8.prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,i.e.laying down rules for language use.9.descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10.arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11.duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12.displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication.13.phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.14.metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15.macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics，anthropological linguistics,et 16.competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.17.performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18.langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19.parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20． Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.21． Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22． Voicing: pronouncing a sound(usually a vowel or a voiced consonant)by vibrating the vocal cords.23． Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.24． Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25． Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.26． Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.is an allophone of /t/in English.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated.Bothand are allophones of the phoneme/t/.27． Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28． Manner of articulation;in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29． Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30． Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31． Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.32． IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.33． Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone，and intonation.34． Suprasegmental:aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.35.morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.36.compound oly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.37.inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38.affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).39.derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40.root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41.allomorph:;any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42.Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43.bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g.the plural morpheme in ―dog’s‖.44.free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45.lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.‖dog in the manger‖)46.lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47.grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,such conjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.48.lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.49.open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.50.blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51.loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52.loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53.leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.54.acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.55.loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.56.back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.57.assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called.‖contact‖or‖contiguous‖assimilation.58.dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.59.folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous 60.category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.61.concord: also known as agreement,is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62.syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a sequence,or between elements which are all present.63.paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure,or between one element present and he others absent.64.immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65.endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent,or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centre,or head, of the whole.Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.66.exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.67.deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction,i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or a verb and its object.68.surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction,which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.69.c-command: one of the similarities,or of the more general features, in these two government relations,is technically called constituent command,c-command for short.70.government and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point,of the utterance.71.communicative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.72.ideational function: the speaker’s experience of the real world,including the inner world of his own consciousness.73.interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles,which include the communication roles created by language itself;and also for getting things done,by means of the interaction between one person and another..74.textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.75.conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.76.denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77.connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.78.reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.79.reference: the use of anguage to express a proposition,i.e.to talk about things in context.80.sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.81.synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.82.complentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely,such as male,female,absent.83.gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable,such as long:short,big;small,fat;thin,etc.84.converse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition,such as buy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.85.relational opposites:converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations,temporal and spatial relations.There are always two entities involved.One presupposes the other.The shorter,better;worse.etc are instances of relational opposites.86.hyponymy: a relation between tow words,in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)87.superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy,i.e.the class name.A superordinate usually has several hyponyms.Under animal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc, 88.semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values,e.g<+human> 89.compositionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.90.selection restriction:semantic restrictions of the noun phrases that a particular lexical item can take,e.g.regret requires a human subject.91.prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of the truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.92.proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93.predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.94.assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95.cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a ―recognition lexicon‖in which each word is represented by a full and independent‖recognistion element‖.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.96.context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.97.frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98.inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone has said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinary sense,e.g.in a specific context.99.immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.100.language perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.101.language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.102.language production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.103.language production: a goal-directed activity,in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.104.lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.105.macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.106.modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107.parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.108.propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.109.psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).110.psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.111.schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112.story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.113.writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng.114.communicative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set of rules,conventions,etc.governing the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.115.gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is‖genden difference‖ 116.linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,i.e.language determines thought.117.linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.118.linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.119.sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120.sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.121.variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers’social starts and phonological variations.122.performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.123.constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.124.locutionary act: the act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon,and phonology.Namely.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.125.illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.126.perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.127.conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.128.entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other:e.g.‖Mary is running‖entails,among other things,‖Mary is not standing still‖.129.ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.130.communicative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.131.relevance: a property that any utterance,or a proposition that it communicates,must,in the nature of communication,necessarily have.132.Q-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale,i.e.Make your contribution necessary(G.Relation,Quantity2,Manner);Say no more than you must(given Q).133.division of pragmatic labour: the use of a marked crelatively complex and/or expression when a corresponding unmarkeda(simpler,less‖effortful‖)alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message(one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed).134.constraints on Horn scales:the hearer-based o-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to..135.third-person narrator: of the narrator is not a character in the fictional world,he or she is usually called a third –person narrator.136.I-narrator: the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story,relating the story after the event.137.direct speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.138.indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.139.indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation which is an amalgam of direct speech.140.narrator’s repreaentation of speech acts: a minimalist kind of presentation in which a part of passage can be seen as a summery of a longer piece of discourse,and therefore even more backgruonded than indirect speech representation would be.141.narrator‖srepresentation of thought acts: a kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their of characters are exactly as that used to present speech acts.For example，she considered his unpunctuality.142.indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he woule be late.143.fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.144.narrator’s representation of thought acts:a kind of the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of therir characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.145.indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he would be late.146.fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.147.narrator‖s representation of thought: the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.148.free indirect thought: the categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech,e.g.He was bound to be late.149.direct thought: categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech..150.computer system: the machine itself together with a keyboard,printer,screen,disk drives,programs,etc.151.computer literacy: those people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of computers and computer software.152.computer linguistics: a branch of applied liguistics,dealing with computer processing of human language.153.Call: computer-assisted language learning(call),refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language.154.programnded instruction: the use of computers to monitor student progress,to direct students into appropriate lessons,material,etc.155.local area network: are computers linked together by cables in a classroom,lab,or building.They offer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time and experience with target language.156.CD-ROM: computer disk-read only memory allows huge amount of information to be stored on one disk with quich access to the information.Students and teachers can access information quickly and efficiently for use in and out of the classroom.157.machine translation: refers to the use of machine(usually computer)to translate texts from one language to another.158.concordance: the use of computer to search for a particular word,sequence of words.or perhaps even a part of speech in a text.The computer can also receive all examples of a particular word,usually in a context,which is a further aid to the linguist.It can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered.159.annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated-it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information, 160.annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated—it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information.161.informational retrieval: the term conventionally though somewhat inaccurately,applied to the type of actrvity discussed in this volume.An information retrieval system does not infor(i.e.change the knowledge of)the user on the subject of his inquiry.it merely informs on the existence(or non-existence)and whereabouts of documents relating to his request.162.document representative: information structure is concerned with exploiting relationships,between documents to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of retrieval strategies.It covers specifically a logical organization of information,such as document representatives,for the purpose of information retrieval.163.precision: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.164.recall: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.165.applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to study of second and foreign language learning and teaching,and other areas such as translation,the compiling of dictionaries,etc 166.communicative competence: as defined by Hymes,the knowledge and ability involved in putting language to communicative use.167.syllabus:the planning of course of instruction.It is a description of the cousr content,teaching procedures and learning experiences.168.interlanguage:the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language,i.e.the language system between the target language and the learner’s native language.169.transfer: the influence of mother tongue upon the second language.When structures of the two languages are similar,we can get positive transfer of facilitation;when the two languages are different in structures,negative transfer of inference occurs and result in errors.170.validity: the degree to which a test meansures what it is meant to measure.There are four kinds of validity,i.e.content validity,construct validity,empirical valiodity,and face validity.171.rebiability: can be defined as consistency.There are two kinds of reliability,i.e.stability reliability,and equiralence reliability.172.hypercorrection: overuse of a standard linguistic features,in terms of both frequency,i.e.overpassing the speakers of higher social status,and overshooting the target,i.e.extending the use of a form inalinguistic environment where it is not expected to occur,For example,pronouncing ideas as[ai’dier],extending pronouncing post-vocalic/r/ in an envorienment where it’s not supposed to occur.173.discrete point test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of phonology,syntax and lexis.174.integrative test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of phonology,syntax and lexis.