计算机中英文翻译试题

计算机中英文翻译试题（精选4篇）

篇1：计算机中英文翻译试题

Fundamentals This chapter describes the fundamentals of today’s wireless communications.First a detailed description of the radio channel and its modeling are presented, followed by the introduction of the principle of OFDM multi-carrier transmission.In addition, a general overview of the spread spectrum technique, especially DS-CDMA, is given and examples of potential applications for OFDM and DS-CDMA are analyzed.This introduction is essential for a better understanding of the idea behind the combination of OFDM with the spread spectrum technique, which is briefly introduced in the last part of this chapter.1.1 Radio Channel Characteristics Understanding the characteristics of the communications medium is crucial for the appropriate selection of transmission system architecture, dimensioning of its components, and optimizing system parameters, especially since mobile radio channels are considered to be the most difficult channels, since they suffer from many imperfections like multipath fading, interference, Doppler shift, and shadowing.The choice of system components is totally different if, for instance, multipath propagation with long echoes dominates the radio propagation.Therefore, an accurate channel model describing the behavior of radio wave propagation in different environments such as mobile/fixed and indoor/outdoor is needed.This may allow one, through simulations, to estimate and validate the performance of a given transmission scheme in its several design phases.1.1.1 Understanding Radio Channels In mobile radio channels(see Figure 1-1), the transmitted signal suffers from different effects, which are characterized as follows: Multipath propagation occurs as a consequence of reflections, scattering, and diffraction of the transmitted electromagnetic wave at natural and man-made objects.Thus, at the receiver antenna, a multitude of waves arrives from many different directions with different delays, attenuations, and phases.The superposition of these waves results in amplitude and phase variations of the composite received signal.Doppler spread is caused by moving objects in the mobile radio channel.Changes in the phases and amplitudes of the arriving waves occur which lead to time-variant multipath propagation.Even small movements on the order of the wavelength may result in a totally different wave superposition.The varying signal strength due to time-variant multipath propagation is referred to as fast fading.Shadowing is caused by obstruction of the transmitted waves by, e.g., hills, buildings, walls, and trees, which results in more or less strong attenuation of the signal strength.Compared to fast fading, longer distances have to be covered to significantly change the shadowing constellation.The varying signal strength due to shadowing is called slow fading and can be described by a log-normal distribution [36].Path loss indicates how the mean signal power decays with distance between transmitter and receiver.In free space, the mean signal power decreases with the square of the distance between base station(BS)and terminal station(TS).In a mobile radio channel, where often no line of sight(LOS)path exists, signal power decreases with a power higher than two and is typically in the order of three to five.Variations of the received power due to shadowing and path loss can be efficiently counteracted by power control.In the following, the mobile radio channel is described with respect to its fast fading characteristic.1.1.2 Channel Modeling The mobile radio channel can be characterized by the time-variant channel impulse response h(τ , t)or by the time-variant channel transfer function H(f, t), which is the Fourier transform of h(τ , t).The channel impulse response represents the response of the channel at time t due to an impulse applied at time t − τ.The mobile radio channel is assumed to be a wide-sense stationary random process, i.e., the channel has a fading statistic that remains constant over short periods of time or small spatial distances.In environments with multipath propagation, the channel impulse response is composed of a large number of scattered impulses received over Np different paths，Where

and ap, fD,p, ϕp, and τp are the amplitude, the Doppler frequency, the phase, and the propagation delay, respectively, associated with path p, p = 0,..., Np − 1.The assigned channel transfer function is

The delays are measured relative to the first detectable path at the receiver.The Doppler Frequency

depends on the velocity v of the terminal station, the speed of light c, the carrier frequency fc, and the angle of incidence αp of a wave assigned to path p.A channel impulse response with corresponding channel transfer function is illustrated in Figure 1-2.The delay power density spectrum ρ(τ)that characterizes the frequency selectivity of the mobile radio channel gives the average power of the channel output as a function of the delay τ.The mean delay τ , the root mean square(RMS)delay spread τRMS and the maximum delay τmax are characteristic parameters of the delay power density spectrum.The mean delay is

Where

Figure 1-2 Time-variant channel impulse response and channel transfer function with frequency-selective fading is the power of path p.The RMS delay spread is defined as Similarly, the Doppler power density spectrum S(fD)can be defined that characterizes the time variance of the mobile radio channel and gives the average power of the channel output as a function of the Doppler frequency fD.The frequency dispersive properties of multipath channels are most commonly quantified by the maximum occurring Doppler frequency fDmax and the Doppler spread fDspread.The Doppler spread is the bandwidth of the Doppler power density spectrum and can take on values up to two times |fDmax|, i.e.，1.1.3Channel Fade Statistics The statistics of the fading process characterize the channel and are of importance for channel model parameter specifications.A simple and often used approach is obtained from the assumption that there is a large number of scatterers in the channel that contribute to the signal at the receiver side.The application of the central limit theorem leads to a complex-valued Gaussian process for the channel impulse response.In the absence of line of sight(LOS)or a dominant component, the process is zero-mean.The magnitude of the corresponding channel transfer function

is a random variable, for brevity denoted by a, with a Rayleigh distribution given by

Where

is the average power.The phase is uniformly distributed in the interval [0, 2π].In the case that the multipath channel contains a LOS or dominant component in addition to the randomly moving scatterers, the channel impulse response can no longer be modeled as zero-mean.Under the assumption of a complex-valued Gaussian process for the channel impulse response, the magnitude a of the channel transfer function has a Rice distribution given by

The Rice factor KRice is determined by the ratio of the power of the dominant path to thepower of the scattered paths.I0 is the zero-order modified Bessel function of first kind.The phase is uniformly distributed in the interval [0, 2π].1.1.4Inter-Symbol(ISI)and Inter-Channel Interference(ICI)The delay spread can cause inter-symbol interference(ISI)when adjacent data symbols overlap and interfere with each other due to different delays on different propagation paths.The number of interfering symbols in a single-carrier modulated system is given by

For high data rate applications with very short symbol duration Td < τmax, the effect of ISI and, with that, the receiver complexity can increase significantly.The effect of ISI can be counteracted by different measures such as time or frequency domain equalization.In spread spectrum systems, rake receivers with several arms are used to reduce the effect of ISI by exploiting the multipath diversity such that individual arms are adapted to different propagation paths.If the duration of the transmitted symbol is significantly larger than the maximum delay Td τmax, the channel produces a negligible amount of ISI.This effect is exploited with multi-carrier transmission where the duration per transmitted symbol increases with the number of sub-carriers Nc and, hence, the amount of ISI decreases.The number of interfering symbols in a multi-carrier modulated system is given by

Residual ISI can be eliminated by the use of a guard interval(see Section 1.2).The maximum Doppler spread in mobile radio applications using single-carrier modulation is typically much less than the distance between adjacent channels, such that the effect of interference on adjacent channels due to Doppler spread is not a problem for single-carrier modulated systems.For multi-carrier modulated systems, the sub-channel spacing Fs can become quite small, such that Doppler effects can cause significant ICI.As long as all sub-carriers are affected by a common Doppler shift fD, this Doppler shift can be compensated for in the receiver and ICI can be avoided.However, if Doppler spread in the order of several percent of the sub-carrier spacing occurs, ICI may degrade the system performance significantly.To avoid performance degradations due to ICI or more complex receivers with ICI equalization, the sub-carrier spacing Fs should be chosen as

such that the effects due to Doppler spread can be neglected(see Chapter 4).This approach corresponds with the philosophy of OFDM described in Section 1.2 and is followed in current OFDM-based wireless standards.Nevertheless, if a multi-carrier system design is chosen such that the Doppler spread is in the order of the sub-carrier spacing or higher, a rake receiver in the frequency domain can be used [22].With the frequency domain rake receiver each branch of the rake resolves a different Doppler frequency.1.1.5Examples of Discrete Multipath Channel Models Various discrete multipath channel models for indoor and outdoor cellular systems with different cell sizes have been specified.These channel models define the statistics of the 5 discrete propagation paths.An overview of widely used discrete multipath channel models is given in the following.COST 207 [8]: The COST 207 channel models specify four outdoor macro cell propagation scenarios by continuous, exponentially decreasing delay power density spectra.Implementations of these power density spectra by discrete taps are given by using up to 12 taps.Examples for settings with 6 taps are listed in Table 1-1.In this table for several propagation environments the corresponding path delay and power profiles are given.Hilly terrain causes the longest echoes.The classical Doppler spectrum with uniformly distributed angles of arrival of the paths can be used for all taps for simplicity.Optionally, different Doppler spectra are defined for the individual taps in [8].The COST 207 channel models are based on channel measurements with a bandwidth of 8–10 MHz in the 900-MHz band used for 2G systems such as GSM.COST 231 [9] and COST 259 [10]: These COST actions which are the continuation of COST 207 extend the channel characterization to DCS 1800, DECT, HIPERLAN and UMTS channels, taking into account macro, micro, and pico cell scenarios.Channel models with spatial resolution have been defined in COST 259.The spatial component is introduced by the definition of several clusters with local scatterers, which are located in a circle around the base station.Three types of channel models are defined.The macro cell type has cell sizes from 500 m up to 5000 m and a carrier frequency of 900 MHz or 1.8 GHz.The micro cell type is defined for cell sizes of about 300 m and a carrier frequency of 1.2 GHz or 5 GHz.The pico cell type represents an indoor channel model with cell sizes smaller than 100 m in industrial buildings and in the order of 10 m in an office.The carrier frequency is 2.5 GHz or 24 GHz.COST 273: The COST 273 action additionally takes multi-antenna channel models into account, which are not covered by the previous COST actions.CODIT [7]: These channel models define typical outdoor and indoor propagation scenarios for macro, micro, and pico cells.The fading characteristics of the various propagation environments are specified by the parameters of the Nakagami-m distribution.Every environment is defined in terms of a number of scatterers which can take on values up to 20.Some channel models consider also the angular distribution of the scatterers.They have been developed for the investigation of 3G system proposals.Macro cell channel type models have been developed for carrier frequencies around 900 MHz with 7 MHz bandwidth.The micro and pico cell channel type models have been developed for carrier frequencies between 1.8 GHz and 2 GHz.The bandwidths of the measurements are in the range of 10–100 MHz for macro cells and around 100 MHz for pico cells.JTC [28]: The JTC channel models define indoor and outdoor scenarios by specifying 3 to 10 discrete taps per scenario.The channel models are designed to be applicable for wideband digital mobile radio systems anticipated as candidates for the PCS(Personal Communications Systems)common air interface at carrier frequencies of about 2 GHz.UMTS/UTRA [18][44]: Test propagation scenarios have been defined for UMTS and UTRA system proposals which are developed for frequencies around 2 GHz.The modeling of the multipath propagation corresponds to that used by the COST 207 channel models.HIPERLAN/2 [33]: Five typical indoor propagation scenarios for wireless LANs in the 5 GHz frequency band have been defined.Each scenario is described by 18discrete taps of the delay power density spectrum.The time variance of the channel(Doppler spread)is modeled by a classical Jake’s spectrum with a maximum terminal speed of 3 m/h.Further channel models exist which are, for instance, given in [16].1.1.6Multi-Carrier Channel Modeling Multi-carrier systems can either be simulated in the time domain or, more computationally efficient, in the frequency domain.Preconditions for the frequency domain implementation are the absence of ISI and ICI, the frequency nonselective fading per sub-carrier, and the time-invariance during one OFDM symbol.A proper system design approximately fulfills these preconditions.The discrete channel transfer function adapted to multi-carrier signals results in

where the continuous channel transfer function H(f, t)is sampled in time at OFDM symbol rate s and in frequency at sub-carrier spacing Fs.The duration

s is the total OFDM symbol duration including the guard interval.Finally, a symbol transmitted onsub-channel n of the OFDM symbol i is multiplied by the resulting fading amplitude an,i and rotated by a random phase ϕn,i.The advantage of the frequency domain channel model is that the IFFT and FFT operation for OFDM and inverse OFDM can be avoided and the fading operation results in one complex-valued multiplication per sub-carrier.The discrete multipath channel models introduced in Section 1.1.5 can directly be applied to(1.16).A further simplification of the channel modeling for multi-carrier systems is given by using the so-called uncorrelated fading channel models.1.1.6.1Uncorrelated Fading Channel Models for Multi-Carrier Systems These channel models are based on the assumption that the fading on adjacent data symbols after inverse OFDM and de-interleaving can be considered as uncorrelated [29].This assumption holds when, e.g., a frequency and time interleaver with sufficient interleaving depth is applied.The fading amplitude an,i is chosen from a distribution p(a)according to the considered cell type and the random phase ϕn,I is uniformly distributed in the interval [0,2π].The resulting complex-valued channel fading coefficient is thus generated independently for each sub-carrier and OFDM symbol.For a propagation scenario in a macro cell without LOS, the fading amplitude an,i is generated by a Rayleigh distribution and the channel model is referred to as an uncorrelated Rayleigh fading channel.For smaller cells where often a dominant propagation component occurs, the fading amplitude is chosen from a Rice distribution.The advantages of the uncorrelated fading channel models for multi-carrier systems are their simple implementation in the frequency domain and the simple reproducibility of the simulation results.1.1.7Diversity The coherence bandwidth of a mobile radio channel is the bandwidth over which the signal propagation characteristics are correlated and it can be approximated by

The channel is frequency-selective if the signal bandwidth B is larger than the coherence bandwidth.On the other hand, if B is smaller than , the channel is frequency nonselective or flat.The coherence bandwidth of the channel is of importance for evaluating the performance of spreading and frequency interleaving techniques that try to exploit the inherent frequency diversity Df of the mobile radio channel.In the case of multi-carrier transmission, frequency diversity is exploited if the separation of sub-carriers transmitting the same information exceeds the coherence bandwidth.The maximum achievable frequency diversity Df is given by the ratio between the signal bandwidth B and the coherence bandwidth，The coherence time of the channel is the duration over which the channel characteristics can be considered as time-invariant and can be approximated by

If the duration of the transmitted symbol is larger than the coherence time, the channel is time-selective.On the other hand, if the symbol duration is smaller than , the channel is time nonselective during one symbol duration.The coherence time of the channel is of importance for evaluating the performance of coding and interleaving techniques that try to exploit the inherent time diversity DO of the mobile radio channel.Time diversity can be exploited if the separation between time slots carrying the same information exceeds the coherence time.A number of Ns successive time slots create a time frame of duration Tfr.The maximum time diversity Dt achievable in one time frame is given by the ratio between the duration of a time frame and the coherence time, A system exploiting frequency and time diversity can achieve the overall diversity

The system design should allow one to optimally exploit the available diversity DO.For instance, in systems with multi-carrier transmission the same information should be transmitted on different sub-carriers and in different time slots, achieving uncorrelated faded replicas of the information in both dimensions.Uncoded multi-carrier systems with flat fading per sub-channel and time-invariance during one symbol cannot exploit diversity and have a poor performance in time and frequency selective fading channels.Additional methods have to be applied to exploit diversity.One approach is the use of data spreading where each data symbol is spread by a spreading code of length L.This, in combination with interleaving, can achieve performance results which are given for

by the closed-form solution for the BER for diversity reception in Rayleigh fading channels according to [40]

Whererepresents the combinatory function，and σ2 is the variance of the noise.As soon as the interleaving is not perfect or the diversity offered by the channel is smaller than the spreading code length L, or MCCDMA with multiple access interference is applied,(1.22)is a lower bound.For L = 1, the performance of an OFDM system without forward error correction(FEC)is obtained, 9

which cannot exploit any diversity.The BER according to(1.22)of an OFDM(OFDMA, MC-TDMA)system and a multi-carrier spread spectrum(MC-SS)system with different spreading code lengths L is shown in Figure 1-3.No other diversity techniques are applied.QPSK modulation is used for symbol mapping.The mobile radio channel is modeled as uncorrelated Rayleigh fading channel(see Section 1.1.6).As these curves show, for large values of L, the performance of MC-SS systems approaches that of an AWGN channel.Another form of achieving diversity in OFDM systems is channel coding by FEC, where the information of each data bit is spread over several code bits.Additional to the diversity gain in fading channels, a coding gain can be obtained due to the selection of appropriate coding and decoding algorithms.中文翻译 1基本原理

这章描述今日的基本面的无线通信。第一一个的详细说明无线电频道，它的模型被介绍，跟随附近的的介绍的原则的参考正交频分复用多载波传输。此外，一个一般概观的扩频技术，尤其ds-cdma，被给，潜力的例子申请参考正交频分复用，DS对1。分配的通道传输功能是

有关的延误测量相对于第一个在接收器检测到的路径。多普勒频率

取决于终端站，光速c，载波频率fc的速度和发病路径分配给速度v波αp角度页具有相应通道传输信道冲激响应函数图1-2所示。

延迟功率密度谱ρ（τ）为特征的频率选择性移动无线电频道给出了作为通道的输出功能延迟τ平均功率。平均延迟τ，均方根（RMS）的时延扩展τRMS和最大延迟τmax都是延迟功率密度谱特征参数。平均时延特性参数为

有

图1-2时变信道冲激响应和通道传递函数频率选择性衰落是权力页的路径均方根时延扩展的定义为 同样，多普勒频谱的功率密度（FD）的特点可以定义

在移动时变无线信道，并给出了作为一种金融衍生工具功能的多普勒频率通道输出的平均功率。多径信道频率分散性能是最常见的量化发生的多普勒频率和多普勒fDmax蔓延fDspread最大。多普勒扩散是功率密度的多普勒频谱带宽，可价值观需要两年时间| fDmax|，即

1.1.3频道淡出统计

在衰落过程中的统计特征和重要的渠道是信道模型参数规格。一个简单而经常使用的方法是从假设有一个通道中的散射，有助于在大量接收端的信号。该中心极限定理的应用导致了复杂的值的高斯信道冲激响应过程。在对视线（LOS）或线的主要组成部分的情况下，这个过程是零的意思。相应的通道传递函数幅度

是一个随机变量，通过给定一个简短表示由瑞利分布，有

是的平均功率。相均匀分布在区间[0，2π]。

在案件的多通道包含洛杉矶的或主要组件除了随机移动散射，通道脉冲响应可以不再被建模为均值为零。根据信道脉冲响应的假设一个复杂的值高斯过程，其大小通道的传递函数A的水稻分布给出

赖斯因素KRice是由占主导地位的路径权力的威力比分散的路径。I0是零阶贝塞尔函数的第一阶段是一致kind.The在区间[0，2π]分发。

1.1.4符号间（ISI）和通道间干扰（ICI）

延迟的蔓延引起的符号间干扰（ISI）当相邻的数据符号上的重叠与互相不同的传播路径，由于不同的延迟干涉。符号的干扰在单载波调制系统的号码是给予

对于高数据符号持续时间很短运输署<蟿MAX时，ISI的影响，这样一来，速率应用，接收机的复杂性大大增加。对干扰影响，可以抵消，如时间或频域均衡不同的措施。在扩频系统，与几个臂Rake接收机用于减少通过利用多径分集等，个别武器适应不同的传播路径的干扰影响。

如果发送符号的持续时间明显高于大的最大延迟运输署蟿最大，渠道产生ISI的微不足道。这种效果是利用多载波传输的地方，每发送符号的增加与子载波数控数目，因此，ISI的金额减少的持续时间。符号的干扰多载波调制系统的号码是给予

可以消除符号间干扰由一个保护间隔（见1.2节）的使用。

最大多普勒在移动无线应用传播使用单载波调制通常比相邻通道，这样，干扰对由于多普勒传播相邻通道的作用不是一个单载波调制系统的问题距离。对于多载波调制系统，子通道间距FS可以变得非常小，这样可以造成严重的多普勒效应ICI的。只要所有子载波只要是一个共同的多普勒频移金融衍生工具的影响，这可以补偿多普勒频移在接收器和ICI是可以避免的。但是，如果在对多普勒子载波间隔为几个百分点的蔓延情况，卜内门可能会降低系统的性能显着。为了避免性能降级或因与ICI卜内门更复杂的接收机均衡，子载波间隔财政司司长应定为

这样说，由于多普勒效应可以忽略不扩散（见第4章）。这种方法对应于OFDM的1.2节中所述，是目前基于OFDM的无线标准遵循的理念。

不过，如果多载波系统的设计选择了这样的多普勒展宽在子载波间隔或更高，秩序是在频率RAKE接收机域名可以使用[22]。随着频域RAKE接收机每个支部耙解决了不同的多普勒频率。

1.1.5多径信道模型的离散的例子

各类离散多与不同的细胞大小的室内和室外蜂窝系统的信道模型已经被指定。这些通道模型定义的离散传播路径的统计信息。一种广泛使用的离散多径信道模型概述于下。造价207[8]：成本207信道模型指定连续四个室外宏蜂窝传播方案，指数下降延迟功率密度谱。这些频道功率密度的离散谱的实现都是通过使用多达12个频道。与6频道设置的示例列于表1-1。在这种传播环境的几个表中的相应路径延迟和电源配置给出。丘陵地形导致最长相呼应。

经典的多普勒频谱与均匀分布的到达角路径可以用于简化所有的频道。或者，不同的多普勒谱定义在[8]个人频道。207信道的成本模型是基于一个8-10兆赫的2G，如GSM系统中使用的900兆赫频段信道带宽的测量。造价231[9]和造价259[10]：这些费用是行动的延续成本207扩展通道特性到DCS1800的DECT，HIPERLAN和UMTS的渠道，同时考虑到宏观，微观和微微小区的情况为例。空间分辨率与已定义的通道模型在造价259。空间部分是介绍了与当地散射，这是在基站周围设几组圆的定义。三种类型的通道模型定义。宏细胞类型具有高达500〜5000米，载波频率为900兆赫或1.8 GHz的单元尺寸。微细胞类型被定义为细胞体积约300米，1.2 GHz或5 GHz载波频率。细胞类型代表的Pico与细胞体积小于100工业建筑物和办公室中的10 m阶米室内信道模型。载波频率为2.5 GHz或24千兆赫。造价273：成本273行动另外考虑到多天线信道模型，这是不是由先前的费用的行为包括在内。

CODIT [7]：这些通道模型定义的宏，微，微微蜂窝和室外和室内传播的典型案例。各种传播环境的衰落特性是指定的在NakagamiSS）的不同扩频码L是长度，如图1-3所示的系统。没有其他的分集技术被应用。QPSK调制用于符号映射。移动无线信道建模为不相关瑞利衰落信道（见1.1.6）。由于这些曲线显示，办法，AWGN信道的一对L时，对MC-SS系统性能有很大价值。

另一种实现形式的OFDM系统的多样性是由前向纠错信道编码，在这里，每个数据位的信息分散在几个代码位。附加在衰落信道分集增益，编码增益一个可因适当的编码和解码算法的选择。

篇2：计算机中英文翻译试题

蓄电池 battery 充电 converter 转换器 charger

开关电器 Switch electric 按钮开关 Button to switch 电源电器 Power electric 插头插座 Plug sockets

篇3：计算机中英文翻译试题

关键词：中英文电影译名,欠额翻译,超额翻译,文化差异

1. 超额翻译和欠额翻译

超额翻译和欠额翻译最早由彼得·纽马克提出。他在1976年发表的《翻译理论和技巧》 (The Theory and Craft of Translation) 一文中分析“意义走失”现象时, 认为翻译中的意义走失是多方面的, 而其中最主要是由于“超额翻译” (过于细化) 和“欠额翻译” (过于泛化) 造成的, 同时指出, 超额翻译和欠额翻译的根源不仅在于语言差异, 而且有个人因素。后来, 他在《交际翻译与语义翻译》 (Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation) 一文中界定“语义翻译”和“交际翻译”时说:“交际翻译倾向于流畅、简单、清晰、直接, 针对某一特定的语域, 因此可以说是一种‘欠额翻译’;而语义翻译倾向于复杂细致的表述, 常常造成译文表述得不流畅和晦涩, 侧重于思维过程的再现, 而不是传递源语作者的意图, 因而常常造成‘超额翻译’。”[1]

俄国翻译理论家拉舍夫在其1988年出版的《翻译:理论、实践与教学法》一书中, 认为“语言中介”是指掌握两种语言的人为支持使用不同语言的人的言语交际而从事的活动, 它是双语交际的中心环节。而语言中介有两种极端的表现:一种是超额翻译, 另一种是欠额翻译。超额翻译是指对所译材料进行补充加工, 进行超出翻译范围的改造。[2]而欠额翻译则是在某些方面不符合翻译规范的语言中介类型, 是缩写或节译。有一些语言中介产物其实是超额翻译与欠额翻译的混合体。[3]

简单说来, 欠额翻译就是指译文承载的信息量小于原文的信息量, 而超额翻译是指译文承载的信息量大于原文的信息量。

造成翻译的欠额和超额, 很大部分的原因是翻译不仅仅面对的是两种语言, 而是面对两种不同的文化, 中英文化渊源不同, 存在千差万别。中华文化博大精深, 源远流长, 自成一体, 而英国文化源于希腊、罗马文化及《圣经》, 属于多元文化。汉英文化的差异实际上代表了中西方两大区域文化的差异。文化的差异经过漫长的历史沉淀, 铸定了一个民族在性格、气质、宗教信仰、道德观念、语言表达、思维模式及生活方式等方面同其他民族的差别。中国乃礼仪之邦, 中华民族几千年来遵循的是道德仁义、非礼不为的准则。故此汉语中有诸如“菲酌”、“薄礼”、“寒舍”、“拙作”、“残内”、“令郎”、“高见”、“大作”、“尊驾”、“府上”等表示敬意的尊称。与中国人不同, 英美人性格外向、开朗, 强调表现自我, 重个人价值, 从不自贬。截然不同的固有民族性格造成的文化冲突在跨文化交际中表现为翻译上的语义空缺。上述谦辞中的定语及尊称等词在英语中实际上找不到确切的对应词。

2. 超额欠额翻译在电影译名中的体现

纽马克说过, 翻译的意义流失是不可避免的、客观存在的, 辩证地来看, 任何翻译只能体现欠额和超额的交际翻译和语义翻译的合体、欠额和超额翻译是辩证存在于翻译实践过程中的。并且, 彼时的欠额翻译, 可能会成为可接受的翻译或超额翻译, 彼时的超额翻译, 可能变得不可接受或欠额翻译。超额翻译和欠额翻译具有必然性, 一般译作往往是在两极之间摆动, 不是偏向这边, 就是偏向那边。[2]

电影名称的翻译上, 多以音译法、直译法、意译法和扩译法等, 但无论哪种方法, 都不可避免地存在或多或少的超额和欠额的翻译, 有些是由于翻译工作者的疏忽, 有些是由于中西方文化的差异。

(1) 欠额翻译

电影《霸王别姬》描写了一对戏子 (程蝶衣和段小楼) 离奇悲惨的一生, 讲的是时代变革中人的迷恋与背叛, 同时展现了广阔丰富的社会风貌, 因而具有史诗的性质。它的译名Farewell My Concubine不能表达戏中丰富的内涵, “霸王别姬”这个名字是程蝶衣和段小楼表演的一出戏, 程蝶衣因戏爱上了段小楼, 并在最后和虞姬一样自刎, 有戏如人生、人生入戏之感, 而直译成Farewell My Concubine不能让国外观众有看过霸王别姬故事的代入感, 所以, 该片的译名就文化而言是欠额的。

与之类似的电影还有美国电影Forrest Gump译为《阿甘正传》, Guess Who’s Coming to Dinner译为《猜猜谁来吃晚餐》及Rain man译为《雨人》等, 直译片名但是不能保留原本所表达的意境。

(2) 超额翻译

有些电影片名在翻译时, 为了顾及译语观众的习惯, 在忠实于原文内容的基础上, 常常增加一些词来解释原名, 这种在翻译时增加词的方法叫扩译法, 也叫添译法。例如下列电影片名的翻译:Speed———《生死时速》, Toy Story———《玩具总动员》, Patton———《巴顿将军》, Sister Act———《修女也疯狂》等。此类翻译就片名而言, 翻译的超额是显而易见的;但就电影内容而言, 又是忠实的, 而且也更符合译语观众的接受习惯。

电影《黄飞鸿》译作Once Upon a Time in China, 和原名甚至电影内容都不沾边, 这种超额的电影名翻译完全无法展现电影内涵, 又如《唐伯虎点秋香》译作Flirting Scholar只有博人眼球的优势。

Ghost译作《人鬼情未了》如果直译好像是一部恐怖片。“人鬼”暗合了阴阳两隔, 而“情未了”三字, 是对故事情节的完美体现。另外, 五个字的平仄音韵, 错落有致, 令人叹服。

3. 结语

从以上分析我们可以看出, 由于语言、历史文化、风俗习惯及宗教信仰等方面存在的文化差异, 电影片名翻译中超额、欠额现象的存在是必然的, 一般译作往往在这两极之间摆动, 不是偏向这边, 就是偏向那边。虽然超额翻译和欠额翻译是不可避免的客观现象, 但是译者不能无视翻译原则, 胡乱翻译, 造成让人啼笑皆非的译名。而是应该在超额和欠额翻译的辩证观点下, 采取变通的手法, 达到译文和译作的最大等值。

参考文献

[1]Newmark, Peter.Approaches to Translation[M].Oxford:Pergamon Press Ltd, 1981.

[2]高圣兵, 刘莺.欠额翻译与超额翻译的辩证[J].外语教学, 2007.

篇4：浅析中英文商标的翻译

关键词：中英文商标翻译跨文化交际

商标是商品的生产者、经营者在其生产、制造、加工、挑选、经销的商品上，或者服务的提供者在其提供的服务上所采用的标识。它是现代社会经济发展的产物，代表着企业的无形资产，对企业成长及对外发展有着极其重要的作用。因此，商品在进入国外市场时，商标的翻译就变得非常重要。如果在商标的翻译过程中考虑不全面，仅仅通过字面意思或者简单的音译，往往会成为翻译的败笔，最终导致该商品在市场中的全面溃败。

在日常生活中，我们会发现很多英文商标的翻译都是音译，这是因为在中文中。没有与该商标相对应的汉语。为了适应中国顾客的阅读习惯，译者通常会选用简单美观、琅琅上口，一看到就能联想到商品的一些汉字组合。这其中最成功的英文翻译就是“coca－cola”，中文翻译为“可口可乐”。这个翻译不仅贴合英文发音，而且还让人联想到这种饮料的可口，以及喝了之后顾客的情绪。

英国著名零售商TESCO也是一个极好的翻译例子。1924年，TESCO创始人杰克·科恩(Jack cohen)开始从事食品批发销售业务，并创立了TESCO的品牌来标识自己出售的产品。TESCO这个名字来源于杰克一个合作商(T.E Stock well)名字的前三位首写字母和自己姓氏(Co－hen)的前两位首写字母，杰克就用这个新单词“TESCO”作为自己经营商品的商标，并准备创立以“TESCO”为名的食品零售商店。2005年，TESCO入驻中国，TESCO的中文翻译也定为“乐购”，这一翻译正好契合了TESCO的特性——高高兴兴地购物，而且其中文发音与英文发音也很相符。

当然还存在很多不完全符合发青的例子。比如世界著名计算机软件开发商微软公司Mi－crosoft，它的翻译简单大胆，没有任何音译的成分，但是却把它相对应的中文意思翻译出来了，语言就是这么神奇。它采用了英文直译成中文的方法。“micro”本意是微小的，“soft”本意是软的，两个形容词就这么组合成了一个名词——微软，另外一个不符合音译的例子是宝洁公司旗下著名的洗发水品牌Rejoice，它在英语中的翻译是“高兴、喜悦”，而宝洁套司采用的翻译却是“飘柔”：“飘”的意思是随风飞动，我们常用的词语有飘扬、飘逸、飘浮等；“柔”则有软、温和等意思。而“飘柔”这一词完全表选出了用完产品后头发柔顺和飘选的感觉，合情合理。现在有很多翻译家更倾向于品牌直译，这样更能表达出该产品的本地特色。

在中国也有很多商标的翻译直接采用音译，这些翻译有些代表了中国商品的特点和中国特色。比较成功的翻译有很多，比如小天鹅洗衣机翻译为“Little Swan”，长城电风扇翻译为“Great Wall”，太平鸟衬衣译为“Peace Bird”等。

如果音译不成，就要首先考虑意译了。在意译的时候，我们需要充分考虑两种语言的文化背景、民情风俗、宗教信仰等，翻译要既简洁、形象、生动，又符合顾客的购物习惯。一个成功的例子就是中国第一个生产药妆的企业伽蓝集团旗下的药妆品牌——医婷Insea，“Insea”来源于大海，浩瀚的海洋蕴含着丰富的资源和能量。翻译中，“in”音译为医，表明了产品是一种药妆，“sea”意译为婷，符合中国女性渴望亭亭玉立的美好愿望，近年来该产品以自然健康的形象深受顾客的喜爱。