外科考博真题总结

外科考博真题总结（精选5篇）

篇1：外科考博真题总结

总论： 1.水电解质平衡

2.水电解质酸碱平衡失调的治疗原则（8分）3.若病人体液急性丧失达体重的5%，有何临床表现？ 4.等渗性缺水5%的临床表现？ 5.等渗性缺水的机体代偿机制？ 6.低渗性缺水的原因。（4分）

7.急性等渗性失水的主要临床症状是什么？ 8.代谢性酸中毒的病因、表现及诊断。9.代谢性酸中毒的病因、临床表现及诊断 10.低钙血症常见于那些疾病？临床表现？ 11.高钾血症的概念，原因，治疗？ 12.多器官衰竭诊断标准 13.MODS的中英文名称及定义 14.MODS的常见外科病因 15.引起MODS的常见外科病因。16.SIRS的中英文全名及诊断的临床指标？

17.急性肾功能衰竭少尿期或无尿期的水电解质酸碱平衡有哪些？ 18.休克引起心功能障碍的原因有那些？ 19.休克指数是什么及临床意义 20.感染性休克的治疗原则（6分）21.感染性休克的治疗原则。22.感染性休克的治疗原则

23.感染性休克治疗中皮质类固醇激素的作用（5分）24.什么是脓毒症和菌血症？ 25.什么是脓毒症、菌血症（3.5分）26.引起脓毒血症的常见病因？ 27.手部无人区

28.手术器械消毒的条件。

29.手术器械消毒方法应该具有的条件。

30.简述手臂洗手消毒后为何还需戴消毒手套？ 31.在手术切口铺无菌巾或者贴无菌敷料的目的？ 32.临床诊疗过程中如何预防潜在的HIV感染？

33.伤口按表现不同如何分类？手术切口愈合如何分级？试举例说明。34.晚期癌症三阶梯治疗方案,列举每阶段两种以上代表药物 35.心肺复苏术中初期复苏治疗措施

36.SIRL写出中英文全称，及临床指标（5分）37.简述创伤的并发症（3分）

38.简述输血的并发症或不良反应（5分）39.与成分输血相比，输全血有何缺点（3分 40.简述肠外营养的并发症（10 41.输血的常见并发症。42.肠外营养的适应症及禁忌症。43.输血的并发症 44.肠外营养的指征及禁忌症 45.简述外科营养代谢并发症有哪些？

46.什么是 BMI ？如何测算及对营养状态诊断的标准？ 47.简述外科感染联合抗炎的适应症。48.简述破伤风的处理原则。

49.肠内营养同肠外营养比较，有哪些特点？

50.破伤风的病原体特点，为预防破伤风，早期治疗有哪些？ 51.心脏疾病可增加病人术后死亡的风险，Goldman指数哪两项得分最高？

52.大出血输血的适应症？（这个题目确实是这样，但是大出血不就是输血的适应症么？不管他，咱们把知道的全部往上写就不会错！）53.外科病人真菌感染的致病因素及列出不少于两个临床抗真菌药物（药理学名称）（5分）

54.糖尿病患者的术前评估及围手术期血糖的处理原则（6分）55.简述成分输血的概念及意义。（6分）56.SSI的全称是什么？包括哪些部位？（4分）57.大量输血有哪些主要并发症？（5分）58.简述营养支持方法的选择依据及原则。（7分）

59.围手术期发生下肢深静脉血栓形成的原因是什么？应当如何预防？（5分）

60.简述清创术的基本要求。

61.预防性使用抗生素有哪些适应症？（4分）62.你对手术区剃毛如何看待？

63.新鲜冰冻血浆和普通冰冻血浆的区别及临床适应症？ 脑外：

1.硬膜外血肿临床表现治疗原则

2.颞区硬膜外血肿表现（脑外）3.小脑幕切迹疝的临床表现 4.听神经瘤的临床表现和治疗？

5.颅内高压时改善脑血流的措施和降低颅内压的措施。6.颅高压诊治 7.小脑肿瘤分类诊治 8.何为血管源性脑水肿(4)9.丘脑下部损伤的症状及体征

10.试画出Langfitt容积/压力曲线，试述Langfitt试验的过程及临床意义

11.颅咽管瘤的术后并发症 12.脑水肿的分类和发病机理

13.垂体源性 Cushing‘s disease 内分泌学检查的临床意义。

14.（Glasgow Liege Coma Scale，GLCS）格拉斯哥-莱吉昏迷计分方法和临床意义。

15.都是以病例的形式，有个儿童颅后窝占位，还有个肿瘤S i p什么分期，问你手术过程中怎么判断是否切干净（太专科了，我只记得这么多）颈外：

1.结节性甲状腺肿诊断要点,治疗原则 2.甲亢手术较药物及放射性I治疗的优点(4)3.分化型甲状腺癌的初次手术治疗方法。

4.甲状腺手术并发症的喉上神经、喉返神经损伤的表现及处理 5.单纯性甲状腺肿的手术指针和手术方法？ 6.如何评价目前外科治疗甲状腺功能亢进症？ 7.单纯性甲状腺肿在什么情况下手术治疗 8.浸润性甲状腺癌淋巴结清扫原则？

9.甲状旁腺亢进根据临床症状分型及如何治疗 胸外：

1.纵隔肿瘤及分区二尖瓣狭窄手术指征（心外）

2.外伤性心包填塞的病因、急救处理原则。

3.二尖瓣狭窄并左心衰的临床表现及治疗 4.外伤性气胸的病理生理改变与剖胸探查指征？ 5.法乐氏四联症的病理改变，治疗原则。6.急诊冠脉搭桥术原理,适应症 7.二尖瓣狭窄诊治 8.典型食管癌的临床表现

9.什么是体外循环？体外循环后的生理学变化有哪些？ 10.详述三尖瓣锁闭的解剖分型。11.胸部肿瘤的转移途径及手术治疗 12.F4的发病机制及临床表现、手术治疗

13.常见的可行外科手术根治的先天性心脏病（不少于 7 种）及法洛 14.四联症的四种畸形。

15.影响食管癌外科治疗远期效果的主要因素有哪些？冠心病行CABG手术的指征

16.主动脉缩窄的分型和手术方式 17.开放性气胸的抢救要点？ 18.张力性气胸的治疗（4分）19.急症开胸探查指证是什么 乳腺：

1.乳腺癌术后辅助化疗的目地及适应症

2.请列举乳腺癌的手术方式，每种手术方式的适应征及切除范围。3.乳腺癌的手术方式及各种手术方式的适应症。4.乳腺癌的手术方法有哪些？（不包括姑息方法）5.乳腺癌辅助化疗的选择？

6.根据中国抗癌协会最新诊治指南与规范，乳腺癌哪些人群适宜保乳治疗，保乳治疗有哪些绝对禁忌症？（6分）

手外： 手急性化脓性腱鞘炎和深部间隙感染与解剖的关系？ 烧伤整形：

1.浅2度，深2度烧伤的鉴别，用表表示！2.烧伤创面早期切痂、削痂的病理生理学基础

3.什么是冷伤？冻结性冷伤的病例生理学和三度伤的局部临床表现 4.重度烧伤病人入院的处理 5.电烧伤的损伤机制和急救方式 6.烧伤的分级、分度 7.削痂植皮

8.瘢痕增生的可能因素。9.烧伤休克期切痂的必要性。

10.男性，26岁，70Kg，不慎被火焰烧伤部位如图示（烧伤分布图：Ⅱ度分布：右上臂全部，左大腿后部；Ⅲ度分布：正面躯干及左大腿前部；会阴部无烧伤）。无休克、吸入性损伤及复合伤，请计算其烧伤面积，评估烧伤严重程度，并试计算第一个24小时补液量。（6分）

11.人、兽咬伤的治疗要点包括哪些？（4分）血管外：

1.下肢血栓闭塞性脉管炎的临床分期 2.原发性下肢静脉瓣膜关闭不全的诊断和治疗 3.腹主动脉瘤的手术方式及注意事项 4.简述下肢动脉硬化闭塞症的治疗。5.下肢静脉曲张的手术方法有哪些？(手术治疗单纯性下肢浅静脉曲张的目的和方法)6.下肢深静脉血栓非手术治疗方法？

7.下肢深静脉血栓的保守治疗，及注意的事项？ 8.外周动脉瘤的治疗 9.周围动脉瘤的临床表现？

10.下肢静脉病变体格检查中、英文名称及各自临床意义（6分）11.颈动脉内膜切除术（CEA）治疗颈动脉严重狭窄手术有哪些绝对的和相对的适应证？有哪些禁忌证？（10分）12.深静脉血栓的非手术治疗 普外：

1.肝癌门静脉转移的临床病理生理 2.胃近端癌R2根治手术方法

3.腹股沟疝定义，里脱疝、瑞契疝定义及临床特点 4.肝门部胆管癌病理、临床表现、诊断 5.胆道出血病因及临床表现治疗（普外）6.吻合口溃疡病因及诊断

7.肝癌治疗新进展

8.上消化道出血剖腹探查的顺序。

9.胆管癌的病因，姑息治疗方法中你认为那种最好？ 10.应激性溃疡的治疗原则

11.肝功能分级及其临床意义 12.试述胎粪性腹膜炎的临床分型 13.结肠癌合并急性肠梗阻的处理原则 14.肝功能的Child分级。

15.嗜铬细胞瘤手术治疗的术前准备、术中术后注意事项。16.消化性溃疡穿孔修补术和根治术选择原则？ 17.胃癌BORRMANN分型

18.简述肝内胆管结石的治疗原则,如何治疗残留结石 19.肝功能分级 20.肝门肿瘤分类治疗

21.十二指肠损伤的特点是什么?伤后常见的死亡原因是什么 22.CHILD分级A级标准(5)23.上消化道出血的常见原因及治疗原则(12)

24.胃癌根治分级校准,D2胃窦癌的淋巴结分组及名称(10)

25.何种方法可确诊胆囊息肉?无症状息肉在何种情况下手术治疗(10)26.PPH中英文全称及手术适应症（6.5分）27.腺瘤恶变行肠切除术的指征

28.胆囊结石，胆囊息肉在什么情况下行胆囊切除术？ 29.急性结石性胆囊炎在什么情况下急诊手术治疗？

30.急性梗阻化脓性胆管炎有何种手术及非手术治疗方法？在何种情况下手术治疗？

31.何为GIST？试述其治疗进展？

32.胆道大出血的临床表现及特点，非手术治疗方法及手术指征 33.肝移植的基本适应症及基本手术方式 34.腹部损伤在什么情况下应考虑腹内脏器损伤 35.简述急性胆源性胰腺炎的治疗（10分）

36.对腹痛病人进行诊断时，应按什么程序进行急腹症的鉴别诊断思考（10分）

37.什么是内痔、外痔和混合痔？内痔的分期？对痔进行治疗时应遵循什么原则？

38.何为皮脂腺囊肿，临床特点。39.胃癌的PTNM分期（1987年）。40.结肠癌高危人群指标。41.胆管炎性狭窄的治疗原则。42.皮脂囊肿是属于什么囊肿及临床特点 43.原发性肝癌的治疗方式 44.结直肠癌的高危人群有有哪些？ 45.试述胃癌的pTNM分期（1987）（8分）

46.试述分化型甲状腺癌的首次手术方式及理由（7分）47.胆管炎性狭窄的治疗原则（5分）

48.简述腹部切口裂开的主要原因。有何表现？ 49.简述 Fast track surgery 及目的与主要措施。50.胆囊癌的 Nevin 分期以及手术方法。51.PPH 的概念、原理、手术适应症及优点。52.简述直肠癌根治手术的原则。53.急性梗阻性化脓性胆管炎的非手术治疗的措施有哪些？ 54.妊娠期急性阑尾炎的外科治疗措施？ 55.胆囊切除术后综合症的原因？

56.良性十二指肠瘀滞症定义，原因，及钡餐表现？ 57.肝内胆管结石的分型，治疗

58.胃癌根治术，根治术的分级方法，D2手术的范围 59.儿茶酚胺症的原因及临床表现？

60.Crohn disease 外科治疗适应症及手术原则？ 61.PEG中英文全称及适应症？

62.肝门部胆管癌的Bismuth-Corlett分型及手术方法选择？（10’）63.TME的概念及手术原则？（10’）

64.直肠癌的流行病学特点，直肠癌的转移途径

65.肝外胆管结石，行胆总管切开取石+T管引流术后应观察哪些征象，何时做胆肠吻合术

66.门静脉断流手术的方式，和效果？

67.胆道出血的临床表现特点？保守治疗方式，及何时采取手术治疗？（10分）

68.腹腔镜治疗的禁忌症？

69.GIST的中、英文名称？诊断要点？ 70.腹腔镜治疗腹股沟疝的方式，及优点？ 71.急性化脓性梗阻性胆管炎的治疗? 72.胃肠间质瘤的治疗进展？ 73.术后伤口裂开的原因及表现？ 74.胆囊息肉的手术切除指标？ 75.阑尾炎转移性右下腹痛的机制？

76.急性机械性肠梗阻的水电解质酸碱平衡失调的类型？ 77.胆源性胰腺炎的治疗？ 78.胰岛素瘤的临床表现？

79.肝硬化食管静脉曲张出血的非手术治疗的措施？贲门周围血管离断术治疗出血的原因（8分）

80.先天性胆管囊性扩张症的临床分型（5分）81.黑色素瘤的临床表现（4分）82.腹腔镜胃癌根治术的禁忌症（5分）

83.CEA, AFP, CA125，CA199，PSA的中文名及各自的临床应用（5分

84.预防术后手术伤口裂开的措施（5分）

85.原发性肝胆管结石病有哪些主要的病理改变？（10分）86.简述GIST的手术适应症及转移复发的处理。（10分）87.简述腹腔镜手术相关的特殊并发症及预防措施。（6分）移植外科：

1.移植抗原有哪几种？肾移植免疫学的选择需作哪些检查 2.有哪些主要因素影响肝恶性肿瘤肝移植术后疗效 3.原位肝移植后的胆道并发症 4.肾移植临床排斥反应的类型和病理 5.肝移植术后发生中远期肾功能不全及肾衰竭的相关因素，如何处理？（10’）

6.肾移植术后外科并发症及内科远期并发症。（10’）7.B细胞在排斥反应中的作用；

8.急性排斥反应的临床表现和病理特征。9.那些因素影响肾移植效果？

10.肝移植急性排斥反应有哪些病理学特征？ 11.腹腔间隔室综合征的临床表现及治疗原则 12.Fast tract surgery 概念意义及看法

13.胃癌行标准远端胃大部切除（D2淋巴结清扫）后，行术后辅助化疗有哪些情况？

14.列举3个胰腺内分泌肿瘤及各自临床症状 15.腹部切口裂开的原因 泌尿外：

1.膀胱肿瘤病理分期 2.尿道损伤的治疗原则 3.前列腺癌诊断

4.骨结核好发部位、治疗原则

5.睾丸肿瘤标记（泌尿外）

6.肾癌与肾盂肾癌鉴别诊断

7.睾丸生殖系肿瘤的分类及治疗原则。8.BPH的病理改变及鉴别诊断 9.泌尿系梗阻的常见原因及诊断治疗原则（以上尿路结石为例）10.急性肾盂肾炎诊断治疗要点 11.睾丸肿瘤分类治疗 12.肾癌的肾外症状(5)13.BPH和前列腺癌好发部位及鉴别(10)14.何为血尿，镜下血尿，肉眼血尿（4分）15.简述前列腺癌的分期

16.如何从肉眼血尿区分出血部位（4.5分）17.输尿管囊肿的诊断和处理 18.试述肾嗜铬细胞瘤的诊断要点 19.肾盂癌的诊断及手术治疗方法。20.肾盂肿瘤的临床表现及治疗 21.膀胱癌的T分期，诊断 22.肾癌的肾外表现 23.包茎可能带来那些危害？

24.诱发泌尿生殖系感染的因素主要包括那些方面？ 25.泌尿外科常用哪些诊断性器械检查？ 26.肾癌可能出现哪些肾外的临床表现？ 27.嗜铬细胞瘤的术前准备应包括哪些内容？ 28.双侧上尿路结石的手术治疗原则 29.睾丸肿瘤的标记物，临床表现和治疗 30.闭合性肾损伤的外科手术指针？ 31.肾积脓的概念？

32.肌层非侵润性膀胱肿瘤的治疗原则有哪些？（10分）33.肾肿瘤的肾外表现有哪些？（4分）34.保留肾单位手术的适应症有哪些？（6分）35.输尿管镜取石术的常见并发症？如何处理？ 36.男性不育症中睾丸后影响因素有哪些？ 37.慢性前列腺炎/慢性骨盆疼痛综合征的临床表现 38.急性尿潴留的原因？

39.影像学在尿路结石中的作用（8分）40.简述医源性输尿管损伤的原因。（8分）41.男性不育的定义及原因 42.泌尿系影像学检查方法及意义 43.肾结核血尿特点及鉴别诊断 小儿外科：

1.先天性肛管直肠畸形的分类 2.尿道下裂的病理表现

3.先天性胆管扩张症囊肿型与梭型、柱状型在病因和并发症方面有什么不同？

4.先天性胆管扩张症手术方法如何选择？

5.小儿先天性肾积水的常见部位、原因、及临床症状，6.B超、CT、MRI和静脉肾盂造影的作用。7.尿道下裂的诊治，理由 8.先天性十二指肠梗阻的X线表现，引起梗阻的三种疾病，手术方式和原因 骨外：

1.肱骨髁上骨折的治疗原则

2.全髋关节置换适应症、禁忌症及并发症

3.骨折愈合临床标准（骨外）

4.脊柱侧弯定义分类治疗

5.L4椎体滑脱的治疗原则。

6.脊柱侧弯

7.应力缓冲效应

8.人工关节松动的原因

9.特发性脊柱侧弯中，结构性侧弯和非结构性侧弯的区别。10.颈椎病手术指征？前后入路选择？

11.脊髓压迫症的自然病程分期,每期临床表现特点 12.如何诊断腰椎不稳 13.脊柱侧弯分类 14.骨巨细胞瘤诊治

15.肱骨髁上骨折分型及手术适应症(7)16.膝关节半月板损伤的临床表现及诊断(10)17.临床上如何鉴别L3／Ｌ4，L4／L5，L5／S1腰椎间盘突出？（分）

18.简述股骨头缺血性坏死的Ficat分期（6分）

919.简述骨折不愈合的定义及X线片特点（6分）20.骨关节炎的诊断和治疗

21.试述人工膝关节置换术后的并发症

22.老年股骨颈骨折的治疗目标、治疗方式选择及理由 23.颈椎过伸损伤的发病机制、临床表现、治疗原则 24.2岁先天性髋关节脱位临床表现、X光表现及治疗原则 25.先天性马蹄内翻足治疗原则。26.股骨头缺血性坏死的 Ficat 分期。27.简述腕管综合症的主要临床表现。28.骨折延迟愈合定义，原因，及X线表现？ 29.孟氏骨折概念和分型？

30.腰椎滑脱的病因分类，诊断和治疗 31.膝关节半月板损伤的临床表现，诊断和治疗 32.肱骨髁上骨折的分型及并发症？ 33.骨折愈合的局部影响因素？ 34.髋关节前脱位的临床表现？ 35.骨折的早期并发症？

36.3-7岁DDH治疗原则（10分）

37.恶性骨肿瘤保肢手术的适应症及重建方式（10分）38.腰椎间盘突出症术后再手术的原因（10分）39.股骨粗隆间骨折的治疗选择。（4分）40.运动系统慢性损伤的特点？ 41.一个患者被车撞后左小腿中断皮肤挫裂伤2*5cm，无血管、神经、肌腱损伤。请给出诊断，并给出AO分型及gustilo-Anderson分型。请详述gustilo-Anderson分型。

42.恶性骨肿瘤分型及对应治疗原则

43.腰椎盘突出、腰椎管狭窄、腰椎滑脱三者诊断及鉴别诊断

中山大学2012年考博试题 外科 简答题70分

等渗性缺水5%的临床表现？ 胆囊息肉的手术切除指标？ 阑尾炎转移性右下腹痛的机制？

急性机械性肠梗阻的水电解质酸碱平衡失调的类型？ 胆源性胰腺炎的治疗？ 乳腺癌辅助化疗的选择？ 胰岛素瘤的临床表现？ 什么是脓毒症和菌血症？ 骨折的早期并发症？ 术后伤口裂开的原因及表现？ 周围动脉瘤的临床表现？ 急性尿潴留的原因？ 问答题：30分（普外）

浸润性甲状腺癌淋巴结清扫原则？ 急性化脓性梗阻性胆管炎的治疗? 胃肠间质瘤的治疗进展？

篇2：外科考博真题总结

Read the following passage carefully and write a summary of it in English in about 150 words.Meaning and Characteristics of the Italian Renaissance The word(过于具体)Renaissance means “rebirth.”(与下文重复)A number of people who lived in(过于具体)Italy between 1350 and 1550 believed that they had witnessed(过于具体)a rebirth of antiquity or Greco-Roman civilization, marking a new age.To them, the thousand or so years between the end of the Roman Empire and their own era was a middle period(hence the “Middle Ages”), characterized by darkness because of its lack of classic culture(铺垫).Historians of the nineteenth century later used similar terminology to describe this period in Italy.(铺垫)The Swiss historian and art critic Jacob Burckhardt created the modern concept of the Renaissance in his celebrated Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy published in 1860(举例).He portrayed Italy in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries as the birthplace of the modern world(the Italians were “the firstborn among the sons of modern Europe”)(与前文重复)and saw the revival of antiquity, “the perfecting of the individual,” and secularism as its distinguishing features.Burckhardt exaggerated the individuality and secularism of the Renaissance and failed to recognize the depths of its religious sentiment（详细陈述或让步）;nevertheless, he established the framework for all modern interpretations of the Renaissance（与主题不直接相联）.Although contemporary scholars do not believe that the Renaissance represents a sudden or dramatic cultural break with the Middle Ages, as Burckhardt argued—there was, after all, much continuity in economic, political, and social life between the two periods（让步）—the Renaissance can still be viewed as a distinct period of European history that manifested itself first in Italy and then spread to the rest of Europe.Renaissance Italy was largely an urban society.As a result of its commercial preeminence and political evolution, northern Italy by the mid-fourteenth century was mostly a land of independent cities that dominated the country districts around them.These city-states became the centers of Italian political, economic, and social life.Within this new urban society,（铺垫，或属于次要原因）a secular spirit emerged as increasing wealth created new possibilities for the enjoyment of worldly things.Above all, the Renaissance was an age of recovery from the “calamitous fourteenth century.” Italy and Europe began a slow process of recuperation from the effects of the Black Death, political disorder, and economic recession（详细陈述或举例论证）.This recovery was accompanied by a rebirth of the culture of classical antiquity.Increasingly aware of their own historical past, Italian intellectuals became intensely interested in the Greco-Roman culture of the ancient Mediterranean world.This new revival of classical antiquity(the Middle Ages had in fact preserved much of ancient Latin culture)affected activities as diverse as politics and art and led to new attempts to reconcile the pagan philosophy of the Greco-Roman world with Christian thought, as well as new ways of viewing human beings.（后果延伸）

A revived emphasis on individual ability became characteristic of the Italian Renaissance.As the fifteenth-century Florentine architect Leon Battista Alberti expressed it: “Man can do all things if they will.”（举例）A high regard for human dignity and worth and a realization of individual potentiality created a new social ideal of the well-rounded personality or universal person who was capable of achievements in many areas of life.（后果延伸）These general features of the Italian Renaissance were not characteristic of all Italians but were primarily the preserve of the wealthy upper classes, who constituted a small percentage of the total population（详细陈述）.The achievements of the Italian Renaissance were the product of an elite, rather than a mass, movement.（与上文重复）Nevertheless, indirectly it did have some impact on ordinary people, especially in the cities, where so many of the intellectual and artistic accomplishments of the period were most visible.（详细陈述或属于不重要修饰语

（2006）

（2005）

Read the following passage carefully and then write a summary of it in English in about 150 words

A tool is an implement or device used directly upon a piece of material to shape it into a desired form.The date of the earliest tools is extremely remote.Tools found in northern Kenya in 1969 have been estimated to be about 2600000 years old, and their state of development suggests that even older tools remain to be discovered.The present array of tools has as common ancestors the sharpened stones that were the keys to early human survival.Rudely fractured stones, first found and later “made” by hunters who needed a general-purpose tool, were a “knife” of sorts that could also be used to hack, to pound, and to grub.In the course of a vast interval of time, a variety of single-purpose tools came into being.With the twin developments of agriculture and animal domestication, roughly 10000 years ago.The many demands of a settled way of life led to a higher degree of tool specialization;the identities of the ax, adz, chisel, and saw were clearly established more than 4000 years ago.The common denominator of these tools is removal of material from a workpiece, usually by some form of cutting.The presence of a cutting edge is therefore characteristic of most tools.And the principal concern of toolmakers has been the pursuit and creation of improved cutting edges.Tool effectiveness was enhanced enormously by hafting---the fitting of a handle to a piece of sharp stone, which endowed the tool with better control, more energy, or both.It is helpful to draw the distinction between hand and machine tools.Hand tools are those used by craftsmen in manual operations, such as chopping, chiseling, sawing, filing, or forging.Complementary tools, often needed as auxiliaries to the shaping tools, include such implements as the hammer for nailing and the vise for holding.A craftsman may also use instruments that facilitate accurate measurements: the rule, divider, square, and others.Power tools---usually hand-held, motor-powered implements such as the electric drill or electric saw---perform many of the old manual operations and as such may be considered hand tools.Machine tools are analogous to hand tools in their function as shaping implements, but they require stationary mounting and mechanical drive for the working of strong materials, primarily metal, and the mass processing of precision parts.During the evolution of tools over more than 2000000 years, using as principal materials, successively, stone, bronze, and iron, humans developed a number of particular tools.Taken together, these specialized tools form an inverted pyramid resting upon the first general-purpose tool.The nearly formless chopper.With the discovery of metals and the support of numerous inventions allowing their exploitation, the first approximations to the modern forms of the basic tools of the craftsman established themselves, with the main thrust of further development directed at improving the cutting edges.The earliest tools were multipurpose;specialized tools were latecomers.A multipurpose tool, although able to do a number of things, does none of them as well as a tool designed or proportioned for one job and one material.（2004）

Read the following passage carefully and then write a summary of it in English in about 120 words.The success of failure of a company abroad depends on how effectively its employees can exercise their skills in a new location.That ability will depend on both their job-related expertise and the individual’s sensitivity and responsiveness to the new cultural environment.One of the most common factors contributing to failure in international business assignments is the erroneous assumption that if a person is successful in the home environment, he or she will be equally successful in applying technical expertise in a different culture.Research has shown that failures in the overseas business setting most frequently result from an inability to understand and adapt to foreign ways of thinking and acting rather than from technical or professional incompetence.At home U.S.businesspeople equip themselves with vast amount of knowledge of their employees, customers, and business partners.Market research provides detailed information on values, attitudes, and buying preferences of U.S, consumers;middle-and upper-level managers are well versed in the intricacies of their organization’s culture;and labor negotiators must be highly sensitive to what motivates those on the other side of the table.Yet when North Americans turn to the international arena, they frequently are willing to deal with customers, employees, and fellow workers with a lack of information that at home would be unimaginable.The literature on international business is filled with examples of business miscues when U.S.corporations attempted to operate in an international context.Some are mildly amusing.Others are downright embarrassing.All of them, to one degree or another, have been costly in terns of money, reputation, or both.For example, when American firms try to market their products in other countries, they often assume that if a marketing strategy or slogan is effective in Cleveland, it will be equally effective in other parts of the world.But problems arise when cultural context changes.Just as inattention to the cultural context can result in some costly blunders in marketing and management, it also can affect seriously the success of international business negotiations.Time, effort, reputation, and even contracts can be lost because of cultural ignorance.The world is changing faster than most of us can calculate, and if American businesspersons are to meet the challenges of an increasingly interdependent world, they will need to develop a better understanding of how cultural variables influence international business enterprises.A healthy dialogue between cultures and members of the international business community will be an important step in achieving that needed understanding.(2003)Read the following passage carefully and then write a summary of it in English in about 120 words.Europe was the first of the major world regions to develop a modern economy based on commercial agriculture and industrial development.Its successful modernization can be traced to the continent’s rich endowment of economic resources, its history of innovations, the evolution of a skilled and educated labour force, and the interconnectedness of all its parts-both naturally existing and man-made—which facilitated the easy movement of massive quantities of raw materials and finished goods and the communication of ideas.Europe’s economic modernization began with a marked improvement in agriculture output in the 17th century, particularly in England.The traditional method of cultivation involved periodically allowing land to remain fallow;this gave way to continuous cropping on fields that were fertilized with nature from animals raised as food for rapidly expanding urban markets.Greater wealth was accumulated by landowners at the same time that fewer farmhands were needed to work the land.The accumulated capital and abundant cheap labour created by this revolution in agriculture fueled the development of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century.The revolution vegan in northern England in the 1730s with the development of water-driven machinery to spin and weave wool and cotton.By mid-century James Watt had developed a practical steam engine that emancipated machinery from sites adjacent to waterfalls and rapids.Britain had been practically deforested by this time, and the incessant demand for more fuel to run the engines led to the exploitation of coal as a major industry.Industries were built on the coalfields to minimize the cost of transporting coal over long distances.The increasingly surplus rural population flocked to the new manufacturing areas.Canals and other improvements in the transportation infrastructure were made in these regions, which made them attractive to other industries that were not necessarily dependent on coal and thus prompted development in adjacent regions.Industrialization outside of England began in the mid-19th century in Belgium and northeastern France and spread to Germany, the Netherlands, southern Scandinavia, and other areas in conjunction with the construction of railways.By the 1870s the governments of the European nations had recognized the vital importance of factory production and had taken steps to encourage local development through subsidies and tariff protection against foreign competition.Large areas, however, remained virtually untouched by modern industrial development, including most of the Iberian Peninsula, southern Italy, and a broad belt of eastern Europe extending from the Balkans on the south to Finland and northern Scandinavia.During the 20the century Europe has experienced periods of considerable economic growth and prosperity, and industrial development has proliferated much more widely throughout the continent;but continued economic development in Europe has been handicapped to a large degree by its multinational character—which has spawned economic rivalries among states and two devastating world wars-as well as by the exhaustion of many of its resources and by increased economic competition from overseas.Governmental protectionism, which has tended to restrict the potential market for a product to a single country, has deprived many industrial concerns of the efficiencies of large-scale production serving a mass market(such as is found in the United States).In addition, enterprise efficiency has suffered from government support and from a lack of competition within a national market area.Within individual countries there have been growing tensions between regions that have prospered and those that have not.This “core-periphery” problem has been particularly acute in situations where the contrasting regions are inhabited by different ethnic groups.（2002）

Read the following passage carefully and then write a summary of it in English in about 120 words.Developments in 19th century Europe are bounded by two great events.The French Revolution broke out in 1789, and its effects reverberated throughout much of Europe for many decades.World War I began in 1914.Its inception resulted from many trends in European society, culture, and diplomacy during the late 19th century.In between these boundaries---the one opening a new set of trends, the other bringing long-standing tensions to a head---much of modern Europe was defined.Europe during this 125-year span was both united and deeply divided.A number of basic cultural trends, including new literary styles and the spread of science, ran through the entire continent.European states were increasingly locked in diplomatic interaction, culminating in continentwide alliance system after 1871.At the same time, this was the century of growing nationalism, in which individual states jealously protected their identities and indeed established more rigorous border controls than ever before.Finally, the European continent was to an extent divided between two zones of differential development.Changes such as the Industrial Revolution and political liberalization spread first and fastest in western Europe---Britain, France, the Low Countries, Scandinavia, and, to an extent, Germany and Italy.Eastern and southern Europe, more rural at the outset of the period, changed more slowly and in somewhat different ways.Europe witnessed important common patterns and increasing interconnections, but these developments must be assessed in terms of nation-state divisions and, even more, of larger regional differences.Some trends, including the ongoing impact of the French Revolution, ran through virtually the entire 19th century.Other characteristics, however, had a shorter life span.Some historians prefer to divide 19th century history into relatively small chunks.Thus 1789-1815 is defined by the French Revolution and Napoleon;1815-48 forms a period of reaction and adjustment;1848-71 is dominated by a new round of revolution and the unifications of the German and Italian nations;and 1871-1914, an age of imperialism, is shaped by new kinds of political debate and the pressures that culminated in war.Overriding these important markers, however, a simpler division can also be useful.Between 1789 and 1849 Europe dealt with the forces of political revolution and the first impact of the Industrial Revolution.Between 1849 and 1914 a fuller industrial society emerged, including new forms of states and of diplomatic and military alignments.The mid-19th century, in either formulation, looms as a particularly important point of transition within the extended 19th century.(2008)

build up ,and like some magnificent structure without foundation.Answer:（2007）

（2006）

Finland, an enormous land of unspoiled lakes and forests, nourishes Finnic genius of commitmen and coexistence with nature.The basic nucleus of the Finnic population are Finns coming from the Urals in the early century of the Christian age.Being such short history, Finland does not have enormous number of work of art, but it is still possible to meet craftsman in Savonlinna who are working according to the old techniques.Glas, which is a typical Finnish product, seems to sum up the characteristics of the world from which it originates: purity, simplicity, and a sense of nature.The forests and waters inspire contemporary works of art;and the meditative soul of the Finns, who blend in with nature, is nourished by these fresh color.Near Leiksa, an extraordinary sculptor working with wood is one of the example of contemporary artists who is inspired by nature.（2005）

A tool is a device use directly upon a piece of material to shape it into a desired form.The date of the earliest toll is extremely remote.Stones as tool were the keys to early human survival.The twin development of agriculture and animal domestication developed the general-purpose tool into single-purpose tool.Generally speaking, tools are removal of material from workplace.It is helpful to draw the distinction between hand and machine tools.Hand tools are those used by craftsmen in manual operations.Machine tools are complementary to hand tools in their functions, but they require stationary, mounting and mechanical drive for the working of strong materials, primarily metal, and the mass processing of precision parts.The earliest tools were multipurpose;specialized tools were latecomers.（2004）

(2003)Europe was the first of the major world regions to develop a modern economy.Its successful modernization facilitated the movement of raw materials and finished goods and the communication of ideas.Concerning the time, it first began in the 17th century.The traditional method of cultivation involved allowing land to remain fallow thus fewer farmlands were needed to work the land and the accumulated capital and labor created by this revolution fueled the development of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century.Industrialization outside of England began in the mid-19th century in Belgium and spread to some of the other European countries.Although they had recognized the importance of factory production and had taken steps to encourage local development, there still existed large areas untouched by modern in industrial development.During the 20th century Europe has experienced periods of economic growth and prosperity, but continued economic development in Europe has been handicapped to a large degree by its multinational character.（2002）（2008）

篇3：老年胃癌患者外科治疗经验总结

1 资料与方法

1.1 临床资料

104例患者中男性75例, 女性29例, 年龄70～89岁, 平均年龄75.5岁。本组病例均经病理检查确诊, 术前经胃镜检查确诊95例, 9例经术中冰冻病理切片确诊, 所有病例术前均作CT、B超检查, 98例 (94.2%) 患者合并有重要脏器慢性病变, 合并疾病有:高血压32例次 (30.8%) , 冠心病11例次 (10.5%) , 糖尿病9例次 (8.7%) , 呼吸系统疾病43例次 (41.3%) , 其他疾病20例次 (19.2%) , 营养不良87例次 (83.7%) 。

1.1.1 临床表现

有上腹疼痛、饱胀或不适者72例 (69.2%) , 消瘦52例 (50.0%) , 食欲下降80例 (76.9%) , 黑便36例 (34.6%) , 吞咽困难10例 (9.6%) , 恶心、呕吐18例 (17.3%) , 腹块13例 (12.5%) , 呕血5例 (4.8%) , 呃逆2例 (1.9%) 。其中原有胃病史者59例 (56.7%) , 从出现症状到入院时间3个月以内25例 (24.0%) , 3～6个月40例 (38.4%) , 6个月以上39例 (37.5%) 。

1.1.2 组织学分类

腺癌92例 (高分化4例, 中分化36例, 低分化45例, 黏液腺癌7例) , 黏液细胞癌7例, 未分化癌5例。病理分类:早期胃癌13例, 进展期胃癌64例, 晚期并广泛转移27例。

1.2 治疗方法

1.2.1 本组病例术后多采用静脉化疗或腹腔化疗

目前认为, 腹腔化疗适用于浆膜侵犯或淋巴结转移的患者, 使腹腔和肝脏这些胃癌最常见的复发转移部位达到较高的药物浓度, 且对老年患者腹腔化疗可以减少化疗不良反应的发生, 提高化疗耐受力, 完成化疗疗程, 我们选用5-FU及羟基喜树碱化疗方案对66例 (63.5%) 患者进行腹腔内化疗, 无1例有明显不良反应发生。所有患者术前均作一疗程静脉正规化疗, 化疗方案选用5-FU及羟基喜树碱, 化疗结束, 监测血常规、生化各项指标能耐受手术者行进一步手术治疗。81例 (77.9%) 患者行第2疗程化疗, 23例 (22.1%) 患者因营养不良、基础疾病致术后恢复欠佳而放弃化疗。

1.2.2 术式

手术治疗98例, 其中根治性切除63例 (64.3%) , 姑息切除30例 (30.6%) 。合并其他脏器部分切除16例, 远端胃大部切除60例, 近端胃大部切除20例, 全胃切除术后15例, 残胃切除3例。

1.2.3 术后并发症

术后73例 (73/98, 74.5%) 患者出现并发症。其中呼吸系统并发症42例 (57.5%) , 以肺部感染多见28例, 其次为气管-支气管炎10例, 呼吸衰竭4例。心血管系统并发症19例 (26.0%) , 以血压升高多见10例, 心律失常2例, 心衰2例, 急性广泛心梗1例, 下肢血栓4例。手术相关并发症12例 (16.4%) :切口愈合不良4例, 吻合口瘘2例, 术后肠梗阻3例, 胃瘫3例。

1.2.4 随访

术后院内死亡5例 (5.1%) , 死亡原因为急性呼衰2例, 心律失常2例, 急性广泛心梗1例。根治术患者中59例得到随访, 6个月内复发19例, 6～12个月复发23例, 半年内死亡14例, 半年～1年内死亡16例, 生存期超过1年的29例, 其中超过5年13例 (13/59, 22.0%) 姑息手术患者随访到的28例均在半年内死亡。未手术治疗的6例患者为晚期肿瘤伴严重内科基础病, 不能耐受手术麻醉, 均在1～3个月内死亡

2 讨论

老年胃癌发病隐匿, 伴随症状较多, 且症状缺乏典型表现, 并发症多, 原有器质性疾病, 一般情况欠佳, 家属及患者求治的积极性不高, 增加了治疗难度。从我们统计的资料看, 老年胃癌病理分类上分化程度低, 恶性程度高, 所以也对老年胃癌的早诊早治提出较高要求。因患者岁数大, 麻醉风险增加, 可导致手术切除范围受限, 无法进行扩大根治性治疗, 也成为日后复发、转移的根源, 缩短了患者生存期。但高龄不是手术禁忌证, 关键看患者重要脏器的功能状态, 其合并的严重的基础疾病可能增加并发症发生率与手术病死率。所以围手术期和术式的选择就尤为重要。

2.1 围手术期的处理

明确患者的机体状态:高龄或超高龄患者的机体器官或组织发生退行性变, 生理储备能力下降, 代偿功能减退, 免疫力、抗感染了均下降。所以要求医师术前详细采集病史, 明确患者是否存在高血压、糖尿病、冠心病、肺心病等老年性疾病, 包括正确评估血糖、血压、血红蛋白、血浆白蛋白、凝血功能、心、肺、肝、肾等重要器官功能。术前做好血压、血糖稳定, 纠正贫血, 改善营养状况, 有一定的器官功能代偿能力, 使患者在术中、术后有一定的应激能力。我们血压一般控制在150～160/90～100mmHg。但张广平等人[3]认为, 血压范围可放得更宽, 收缩压可在170～185mmHg, 舒张压可在105～110mmHg。我们遵循这一标准对15例患者施行了手术, 未观察到明显术后病理情况。对糖尿病患者术前3d即改用胰岛素, 血糖控制在10mmol/L以内, 术后再续用1周。所以, 对长期高血压、糖尿病患者, 我们并不认为一定要把血压、血糖降到正常, 只要不影响麻醉即可。不要因过于强调要把血压、血糖降到正常水平而延误手术时机。

术后护理和营养支持, 术后加强检测生命指标, 改善呼吸功能, 预防肺部感染, 预防栓塞的发生。老年人胃部手术后胃肠功能恢复较慢, 常在5～7d仍不能正常进食, 甚至部分患者发生胃瘫, 所以术后的营养支持要重视。我们的经验是, 术后早期 (5～7d) 可予适量的全营养混合液TPN肠外支持, 但我们仍认为应积极鼓励患者尽早 (术后48h) 进食, 进行肠内营养, 逐步饮食恢复, 有利促进残胃功能的重建, 维护肠粘膜屏障, 如患者短期内不能恢复自主进食, 也可留置胃管进行肠内营养。但值得注意的是在支持性输液中既要提供适当的热量给患者, 以利患者的恢复, 也要预防因输液过多引发的血压、血糖升高, 甚至心衰的发生。我们对以上情况发生时一般适量使用利尿剂减低血容量, 在营养支持液体中补充胰岛素控制血糖。

化疗的原则:以高效低毒化疗药物联用为佳。药物选择仍以经典的5-FU联用其他化疗药。

2.2 术式的选择

2.2.1 严格掌握单纯剖腹探查术

中国医科大学附属第一医院2000年报道, 胃癌非治愈手术者术后住院病死率单纯剖腹探查组为8.0%, 而改道组与姑息切除组分别为6.3%与3.1%[4]。可见单纯剖腹探查手术不仅未带来治疗效益, 反而增加痛苦, 促进死亡。所以医师应在术前正确评估患者病情, 以期减少或避免施行不必要的剖腹探查术。

2.2.2 合理的术式选择

对小的早期胃癌, 应以缩小手术范围为原则。对进展期胃癌联合脏器切除的适应症应慎重选择。进行脏器联合切除或扩大淋巴结系统清除术, 均应认真了解患者的全身状态、肿瘤进展程度及术者自己的经验, 切忌盲目追求根治。一般说来, 高龄患者的根治切除范围以非联合切除、D1+～D2淋巴结清除术为宜;癌肿大体类型可作为重要参照依据。局限型可适当扩大切除范围;浸润型, 尤其BormannIV型癌, 切勿受其侵袭范围诱导, 轻易扩大切除范围。否则, 不仅影响手术安全性, 术后疗效亦多不佳。

摘要：目的探讨老年人胃癌的临床特点和治疗方法。方法回顾性分析我院1996年1月至2006年6月外科收治的年龄≥70岁的104例胃癌患者的临床资料。结果主要临床表现为上腹疼痛、饱胀或不适72例 (69.2%) , 以及消瘦52例 (50.0%) 和食欲下降80例 (76.9%) 。98例患者予以手术治疗, 其中根治性切除63例 (64.3%) , 姑息性切除30例 (30.6%) 。并存有重要器官慢性病变98例 (94.2%) , 出现术后并发症73例 (74.5%) 。手术患者5年生存率, 根治性切除患者为20%, 姑息性切除患者为0。结论老年胃癌患者术后并发症发生率高, 应提高早期诊断率:适宜的手术治疗是提高老年胃癌患者生存率的关键, 但应做好围手术去期处理。

关键词：老年人,胃肿瘤,外科治疗,围手术期

参考文献

[1]张文范, 张荫昌, 陈峻青.胃癌[M].2版.上海:上海科技出版社, 2001:76-77.

[2]王舒宝.胃癌37年临床研究的结果分析[J].中国肿瘤临床, 1999, 26:325-329.

[3]张广平, 冯笑山, 陈登庭.高龄胃癌患者临床治疗分析[J].中国肿瘤临床与康复, 2003, 10 (3) :250-251.

篇4：马克思主义考博真题

1、试论马克思主义的哲学观。（40分）

2、试论马克思主义哲学的批判的革命的本质及其现实意义。（30分）

3、试论马克思恩格斯关于社会公平的思想。（30分）

原著

1、“人们自己创造自己的历史，但他们并不是随心所欲的创造自己的历史„„” 请说出这段论述的出处及含义、意义。（15分）

2、“人的思维的至上性与非至上性……真理与谬误的……” 请说出这段论述的出处及含义、意义。（15分）

3、“认识由感性到理性……从现象到本质，再到更深刻的本质”（关于现象和本质的那段话）请说出这段论述的出处及含义、意义。（15分）

4、“认识和实践……”（关于实践和认识无限反复循环的一段话）请说出这段论述的出处及含义、意义。（15分）

5、试论恩格斯在马克思主义哲学创立过程中的地位和作用。（20分）

6、试论马克思恩格斯关于政治解放和人类解放的关系的思想。（区别和联系）（20分）08年

马哲原理：

1.试述费尔巴哈和马克思关于人的论述。

2．阐述实践标准的确定性和不确定性的论述，并谈谈其现实意义。3．试论述历史规律的客观性及其特点。马哲史：

1.“人体解剖是猴体解剖的一把钥匙„„”一段话，要求说出出处、含义和意义。2.“我们不能得意于对自然界的胜利„„”一段话，要求说出出处、含义和意义。3.“考察的客观性。”要求说出出处、含义和意义。4．“使马克思主义哲学具有中国风格、中国气派”一段话，要求说出出处、含义和意义。04年 马哲原理

1、如何从哲学角度理解社会发展。

2、实践在现实生活中的超越意义。原著

1、《提纲》的伟大变革。

2、列宁三者统一思想。

3、毛泽东《实践论》《反对本本主义》《人的正确思想从哪里来》的内在联系。05年 马哲原理

1、马克思主义中国化特点、主要经验及其意义。

2、和谐社会的哲学基础。

3、人与社会矛盾的当代特点及出路。原著

1、《提纲》第二条。

2、《政治经济学批判序言》两个“不会”“必然”。

3、《终结》 “过程集合体”。

4、列宁《谈谈辩证法问题》最后一段“唯心主义的认识论根源”。

5、文本研究对发展马哲的意义。06年：

马哲原理：

1、试论马克思主义世界历史理论对中国现代化的意义。

2、简述真理是一个过程的思想及其意义。

3、试述社会历史发展的决定论和选择论的辩证关系及其意义。原著：

1.引文为马克思《1857-1858手稿》中关于人的发展阶段理论一段话，要求指出出处，解释文本并说明意义。

2、引文为为“随着自然科学的发展，唯物主义必然改变自己的形式......”一段话，要求指出出处，解释文本并说明意义。

3、引文为列宁“两个归结于”一段论述，要求指出出处，解释文本并说明意义。

4、简述毛泽东在《实践论》和《矛盾论》中对马哲中国化的贡献。07年 马哲原理

1、试论马克思主义的哲学观。（40分）

2、试论马克思主义哲学的批判的革命的本质及其现实意义。（30分）

3、试论马克思恩格斯关于社会公平的思想。（30分）

原著

1、“人们自己创造自己的历史，但他们并不是随心所欲的创造自己的历史„„” 请说出这段论述的出处及含义、意义。（15分）

2、“人的思维的至上性与非至上性……真理与谬误的……” 请说出这段论述的出处及含义、意义。（15分）

3、“认识由感性到理性……从现象到本质，再到更深刻的本质”（关于现象和本质的那段话）请说出这段论述的出处及含义、意义。（15分）

4、“认识和实践……”（关于实践和认识无限反复循环的一段话）请说出这段论述的出处及含义、意义。（15分）

5、试论恩格斯在马克思主义哲学创立过程中的地位和作用。（20分）

6、试论马克思恩格斯关于政治解放和人类解放的关系的思想。（区别和联系）（20分）08年

马哲原理：

1.试述费尔巴哈和马克思关于人的论述。

2．阐述实践标准的确定性和不确定性的论述，并谈谈其现实意义。3．试论述历史规律的客观性及其特点。马哲史：

1.“人体解剖是猴体解剖的一把钥匙„„”一段话，要求说出出处、含义和意义。2.“我们不能得意于对自然界的胜利„„”一段话，要求说出出处、含义和意义。3.“考察的客观性。”要求说出出处、含义和意义。4．“使马克思主义哲学具有中国风格、中国气派”一段话，要求说出出处、含义和意义。

中国人民大学中国哲学专业历年考博试题

2000年： 西哲：

1、亚里士多德对柏拉图理念说的批判与继承。

2、安瑟尔谟关于上帝存在的本体论证明。

3、休谟因果说评述。

4、斯宾诺莎唯理论的认识。

5、费尔巴哈对黑格尔唯心主义体系的批评和继承。中哲；

1、庄子对老子思想的继承和发展。

2、《坛经》的心性论综述。

3、朱熹的格物致知思想述评。

4、章太炎儒学观的演变。

5、道家思想的现代意义。2001年 西哲

1、德谟克利特的原子论。

2、康德的感性。

3、经验论的。

4、托马斯·阿奎那的理性和信仰的关系。

5、黑格尔的矛盾。中哲：

1、离间白和合同异的异同。

2、郭象的独化论述评。

3、王阳明的“四句教”的哲学意义。

4、谭嗣同的仁学。

5、以德治国的现实意义。2002年 西哲：

1、柏拉图的理念论。

2、培根的四假象说。

3、休谟的习惯性联想。

4、托马斯·阿奎那关于上帝存在的证明。

5、康德的实践理性批判。中哲：

1、先秦天道观的区别。

2、董仲舒的人副天数说。

3、法藏华严宗的判教理论。

4、严复的中西观。

5、中西哲学的比较。2003年 西哲：

1、亚里士多德的四因说。

2、笛卡儿、斯宾诺莎、莱布尼茨的“天赋观念说”的异同。

3、贝克莱的“存在即是感知和被感知”。

4、黑格尔的辩证法述评。中哲：

1、老子的“道”的思想和现代意义。

2、葛洪对道家思想的改造。

3、二程学说的异同。

4、孙中山的进化论思想。

5、中国哲学同现代化的关系。2004年 西哲：

1、柏拉图理念论。

2、斯宾诺莎实体学说。

3、康德“哥白尼革命”。

4、黑格尔的“思维与存在的同一性。” 中哲：

1、荀子对孔子“礼”思想的继承和发展。

2、南北朝时佛性与人性之辨。

3、王廷相的道体论及其在气学中的地位。

4、维新派知行观的特点。

5、儒佛价值观的融合与冲突。2005年 西哲：

1、亚里士多德的中道思想与孔子中庸思想比较。

2、笛卡儿是在面临什么样的挑战下提出他的形而上学基础的？他是如何构建他的形而上学基础的？

3、贝克莱的“存在即感知与被感知”。

4、康德的“人为自然立法”。中哲：

1、先秦法家的道论。

2、董仲舒对先秦儒家的改造。

3、朱熹的“无极太极之辩”

4、康有为哲学创新中的中国特色。

5、中国哲学中天人关系的现代意义。2007年 中哲： 1．《易传》的哲学思想 2．葛洪的哲学思想 3．《四书》与宋明理学的关系 4．龚自珍、魏源的哲学思想 5．“和”的中国哲学资源 西哲：

1．柏拉图的洞穴隐喻

2．斯宾诺莎的伦理学思想与庄子人生哲学的异同 3．康德的纯粹理性批判 4．举例说明西方哲学概念在诠释中国哲学中的积极作用和消极作用

2009年（凭记忆，可能有误差，请谅解）中哲：

1，儒家的仁爱和墨家兼爱之间的异同 2，董仲舒的天人合一思想 3，宋明理学中天理的含义

4，评述康有为的“公羊三世说” 5，评述中国儒学与现代化的兼容性 西哲：

1，普罗泰格拉“人是万物的尺度”，并用柏拉图的理念论加以评析 2，中世纪两大派

3，康德是怎样完成他的批判的

4，逻各斯和中国哲学中“道”的异同 中国人民大学2010年博士初试题目 中国哲学：

道家哲学的现实意义近代国学争论 宋明理学分系

《易传》中的天人思想 华严宗一与多关系 综合： 一

1.人与自然的关系及其现实意义 2.唯物史观实现的革命性变革

3.为什么说实践的观点是马克思主义认识论的首要的基本的观点

二

1.庄子的齐物论

2.道教的一个什么思想

3.朱熹的“理一分殊”

4.科学规律的合理性与可错性，并举例说明

三

1.柏拉图为什么把世界二重化，分为可知世界与可感世界？从知识论和存在论的角度回答 2.笛卡尔为什么坚持身心二元论？它的形而上学意义及缺陷

3.黑格尔的思维与存在的统一

4.论可能世界 专业课：2011

历史唯物主义在马克思主义中的地位和作用。

马克思恩格斯公平观。

“黑人就是黑人，只有在一定关系下，黑人才是奴隶；纺纱机就是纺织棉花的工具，只有在一定关系下，纺纱机才是资本。”这段话的出处、含义以及意义。

“考察的客观性（不是枝节，是自在之物本身）”，这句话的出处、含义以及意义。

哲学综合：

马哲原理（三选二）

历史唯物主义的基本观点以及对社会科学方法论的意义

矛盾特殊性的含义以及在实际工作中的意义

科学技术是第一生产力

西哲（四选二）

什么是怀疑主义？怀疑主义在西方哲学史上的意义

亚里士多德“

”（一段关于存在论的话），谈谈这种科学的特征以及在西方哲学史上的演变

上帝本体论证明以及康德对证明的批判

篇5：东南大学考博高等有机真题

1.三级胺、二级胺、一级胺、氨在质子酸中的碱性大小、在体积大的路易酸中的碱性大小不同的原因？

2.三个化合物中哪些具有光活性，为什么？

3.顺－1,3－二甲基环戊烷与水的SN1反应产物及机理

4.酮肟的贝克曼重排产物及机理

5.二分子乙烯酮加热的产物及机理

6.蒽在CS2和硝基芳烃中与乙酰氯发生反应，在CS2中，酰基取代9,10位的氢，在硝基芳烃中，酰基取代1,4,5,8位的氢，解释这种溶剂效应。

7.自由基取代反应有一个诱导期，呈链式反应，举例并说明。

8.碳正离子往往用酸催化，碳负离子往往用碱催化，举例并说明。